Feedback on Students' Assessment in Higher Education in Cambodia: A Critical Review, Contextual Analysis, and Reform Agenda

Assessment feedback is widely recognised as one of the most powerful influences on student learning in higher education. Yet, the quality, timing, and usefulness of feedback vary enormously across contexts. In Cambodia, where higher education has expanded rapidly over the past two decades, empirical understanding of feedback practices remains remarkably limited. This paper provides a systematic critical review of assessment feedback in Cambodian universities. It synthesises international theoretical frameworks—particularly Hattie and Timperley's (2007) feedback model, Sadler's (1989) formative assessment theory, and Carless and Boud's (2018) student feedback literacy concept—with the limited but growing body of empirical evidence from Cambodia and comparable Southeast Asian contexts. The analysis identifies significant systemic, pedagogical, and cultural barriers to effective feedback, including large class sizes, limited lecturer professional development, hierarchical cultural norms, and underdeveloped institutional policies. The paper also presents comparative evidence across public and private universities, urban and provincial institutions, and different academic disciplines. A summary table of existing Cambodian studies is provided to clarify the current evidence base. The paper concludes with evidence-informed recommendations for policy and practice and a research agenda to strengthen the empirical foundation for feedback improvement in Cambodian higher education.

assessment feedback, higher education, Cambodia, formative assessment, feedback literacy, student learning, educational quality

1. Altbach, P. G. (2013). The international imperative in higher education. Sense Publishers. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. AUN-SEC. (2023). Transforming Cambodian education: The CALOHEA's authentic assessment ignites higher education evolution across ASEAN. ASEAN University Network News. https://www.aunsec.org/news/transforming-cambodian-education-caloheas-authentic-assessment-ignites-higher-education-evolution-across-asean [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Bou, D. (2025). Challenges and suggestions for improving the quality of higher education in Cambodia. Cambodian Journal of Educational Research, 5(1), 1–18. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Boud, D., & Molloy, E. (2013). Rethinking models of feedback for learning: The challenge of design. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(6), 698–712. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Brooks, C., Carroll, A., Gillies, R. M., & Hattie, J. (2019). A matrix of feedback for learning. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 44(4), 14–32. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Cann, A. (2014). Engaging students with audio feedback. Bioscience Education, 22(1), 31–41. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Carless, D. (2015). Excellence in university assessment: Learning from award-winning practice. Routledge. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Carless, D., & Boud, D. (2018). The development of student feedback literacy: Enabling uptake of feedback. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43(8), 1315–1325. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Carless, D., & Winstone, N. (2020). Teacher feedback literacy and its interplay with student feedback literacy. Teaching in Higher Education, 28(1), 150–163. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. CDRI. (2021). Assessing technology readiness of students and teachers in Cambodian higher education during COVID-19. Cambodia Development Resource Institute. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Chea, S. (2025). Teacher feedback beliefs and practices in Cambodian EFL higher education. Language Teaching Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688251415302 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Chea, S., & Hun, R. (2025). Academic accreditation and evaluation in Cambodian higher education institutions: Development, challenges, and opportunities. In Handbook of research on quality assurance in Asian higher education. IGI Global. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Chea, S., & Tep, V. (2024). Key factors influencing digital learning adoption among Cambodian university students. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 9, 100093. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Chhinh, S., & Dy, S. S. (2009). Education reform context and process in Cambodia. In Y. Hirosato & Y. Kitamura (Eds.), The political economy of educational reforms and capacity development in Southeast Asia (pp. 113–129). Springer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Heng, K. (2023). Challenges facing higher education in Cambodia and ideas for reform. Cambodian Education Forum. https://cefcambodia.com/2023/08/13/challenges-facing-higher-education-in-cambodia-and-ideas-for-reform/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Heng, K., & Em, S. (2022). Promoting teachers' continuous professional development in Cambodian higher education: Issues and recommendations. Cambodian Journal of Educational Research, 4(2), 15–34. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Heng, K., & Sol, K. (2021). COVID-19 and Cambodian higher education: Challenges and opportunities. Cambodian Education Forum. https://cefcambodia.com/2021/12/15/covid-19-and-cambodian-higher-education-challenges-and-opportunities/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Hun, R., & Em, S. (2022). Continuing professional development in Cambodian higher education: Barriers and enablers. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4158195 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Nicol, D. (2010). From monologue to dialogue: Improving written feedback processes in mass higher education. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(5), 501–517. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Nicol, D., & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199–218. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Nicol, D., Thomson, A., & Breslin, C. (2014). Rethinking feedback practices in higher education: A peer review perspective. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 39(1), 102–122. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Pham, T. T. H., & Nguyen, T. H. (2019). Assessment and feedback in Vietnamese higher education: Practices and challenges. Higher Education Research & Development, 38(5), 1022–1036. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Pitt, E., & Norton, L. (2017). 'Now that's the feedback I want!' Students' reactions to feedback on graded work and what they do with it. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 42(4), 499–516. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Pitt, E., & Quinlan, K. M. (2022). Impacts of higher education assessment and feedback policy and practice on students: A review of the literature 2016–2021. Advance HE. https://kar.kent.ac.uk/95307/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Preprints. (2025). Teacher-student relationships and their impact on student motivation at a private university in Cambodia. Preprints.org. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202512.0704 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Price, M., Handley, K., Millar, J., & O'Donovan, B. (2011). Feedback: All that effort, but what is the effect? Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(3), 277–289. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18(2), 119–144. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153–189. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Tran, T. T. (2013). Is the learning approach of students from the Confucian heritage culture problematic? Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 12(1), 57–65. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Winstone, N. E., & Carless, D. (2019). Designing effective feedback processes in higher education: A learning-focused approach. Routledge. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Winstone, N. E., Nash, R. A., Parker, M., & Rowntree, J. (2017). Supporting learners' agentic engagement with feedback: A systematic review and a taxonomy of recipience processes. Educational Psychologist, 52(1), 17–37. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Wisniewski, B., Zierer, K., & Hattie, J. (2020). The power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 3087. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. World Bank. (2018). Quality assurance in higher education in Cambodia. World Bank Group. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. You, V. (2022). Student engagement with assessment feedback in Cambodian higher education. Unpublished master's thesis. Royal University of Phnom Penh. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. You, V., & Em, S. (2021). Assessment practices in a Cambodian university: Through the lens of lecturers and students. Cambodian Education Review, 2, 45–68. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]