Impact Assessment of Landscape Architecture on Student Wellbeing in Federal Tertiary Institutions in Lagos State, Nigeria

Rapid urbanization in Lagos State has progressively reduced green spaces on tertiary campuses. Despite considerable evidence from temperate climates, the relationship between landscape architecture and student wellbeing remains understudied in tropical African contexts. This study assessed the impact of landscape architectural elements on the psychological, social, and physical wellbeing of students in federal tertiary institutions in Lagos State, Nigeria. A cross-sectional survey of randomly selected students across three federal institutions (University of Lagos, Yaba College of Technology, Federal College of Education, Akoka) was conducted using the 20-item Landscape Architecture Assessment Inventory (α = 0.91) and the 15-item Student Wellbeing Scale adapted from WHO-5 and PSS-4 (α = 0.88). Data were analyzed using hierarchical multiple regression and PROCESS moderation analysis. Landscape quality significantly predicted overall wellbeing (β = 0.43, p < 0.001, R² = 0.21). Shaded seating (β = 0.31, p < 0.001) and vegetation density (β = 0.20, p = 0.011) emerged as significant predictors, whereas water features were not significant (β = -0.03, p = 0.668). Maintenance quality significantly moderated the landscape-wellbeing relationship (B = -1.24, p = 0.033), revealing a ceiling effect pattern with diminishing returns. Institution differences were also significant: University of Lagos students reported higher landscape quality (M = 3.18) than Yaba College of Technology (M = 2.76) and Federal College of Education (M = 2.71). In conclusion, landscape architecture significantly influences student wellbeing in Lagos tertiary institutions, with shade provision and vegetation density as evidence-based design priorities. Therefore, maintenance protocols and climate-appropriate planting should be integrated into campus planning guidelines.

Landscape Architecture, Student Wellbeing, Campus Green Space, Attention Restoration Theory, Lagos State.

1. Abimbola, O. O. & Agboola, O. P. (2023). Impact of green infrastructure on students' academic performance in Southwestern Nigeria. Environmental Research, 216, 114644. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Adeyemi, E. A. (2015). The challenges of urban greening in Lagos, Nigeria. Cities, 46, 155-163. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Aiken, L. S. & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Ajayi, A., Oladunmoye, O., Obakin, O., & Taiwo, J. (2024). Evaluating the Impact of Sustainable Landscape Planning on Student Well-Being and Academic Performance: A Case Study of the University of Ibadan. Social Informatics Journal, 3(2), 23-29. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Auerbach, R. P., Mortier, P., Bruffaerts, R., Alonso, J., Benjet, C., Cuijpers, P., Demyttenaere, K., Ebert, D. D., Green, J. G., Hasking, P., Murray, E., Nock, M. K., Pinder-Amaker, S., Sampson, N. A., Stein, D. J., Vilagut, G., Zaslavsky, A. M. & Kessler, R. C. (2018). WHO World Mental Health Surveys International College Student Project: Prevalence and distribution of mental disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 127(7), 623-638. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Bartlett, J. E., Kotrlik, J. W. & Higgins, C. C. (2001). Organizational research: Determining appropriate sample size in survey research. Information Technology, Learning, and Performance Journal, 19(1), 43-50. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Becchetti, L., Conzo, P. & Salustri, F. (2021). The impact of student campus greenness on psychological wellbeing. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 714969. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155-159. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Cohen, S., Kamarck, T. & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24(4), 385-396. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Creswell, J. W. & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. DeVellis, R. F. (2017). Scale development: Theory and applications (4th ed.). Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Dober, R. P. (2000). Campus landscape: Functions, forms, features. John Wiley & Sons. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Dzhambov, A. M., Markevych, I. & Lercher, P. (2023). Campus nature and student health: A systematic review. Environmental Research, 216, 114625. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Field, A. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Francis, M. & Cooper Marcus, C. (1991). People places: Design guidelines for urban open space (2nd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Gifford, R. (2016). Research methods for environmental psychology. Wiley. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Graham, J. W. (2009). Missing data analysis: Making it work in the real world. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 549-576. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Grahn, P. & Stigsdotter, U. A. (2003). Landscape planning and stress. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 2(1), 1-18. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J. & Anderson, R. E. (2019). Multivariate data analysis (8th ed.). Cengage Learning. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Hartig, T., Mitchell, R., de Vries, S. & Frumkin, H. (2014). Nature and health. Annual Review of Public Health, 35, 207-228. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Hayes, A. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). Guilford Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Helson, H. (1964). Adaptation-level theory: An experimental and systematic approach to behavior. Harper and Row. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Hipp, J. A., Gulwadi, G. B., Alves, S. & Sequeira, S. (2016). The relationship between perceived greenness and perceived restorativeness of university campuses and student-reported quality of life. Environment and Behavior, 48(10), 1292-1308. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Kaplan, R. & Kaplan, S. (1989). The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15(3), 169-182. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Keizer, K., Lindenberg, S. & Steg, L. (2008). The spreading of disorder. Science, 322(5908), 1681-1685. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Kellert, S. R. (2005). Building for life: Designing and understanding the human-nature connection. Island Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Kellert, S. R. & Wilson, E. O. (Eds.). (1993). The biophilia hypothesis. Island Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Kellou, S., Ndetei, R. & Mushi, D. (2024). Green space and restoration in Tanzanian universities: Evidence from Sokoine University of Agriculture. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 85, 128134. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Keyes, C. L. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of health and social behavior, 207-222. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Landis, J. R. & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33(1), 159-174. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Li, D. & Sullivan, W. C. (2016). Impact of views to school landscapes on recovery from stress and mental fatigue. Landscape and Urban Planning, 148, 149-158. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Lindal, P. J. & Hartig, T. (2013). Architectural variation, building height, and the restorative quality of urban residential streetscapes. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 33, 26-36. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Liu, Y., Zhang, J., Liu, C., & Yang, Y. (2024). A review of attention restoration theory: Implications for designing restorative environments. Sustainability, 16(9), 3639. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Matsuoka, R. H. & Kaplan, R. (2008). People needs in the urban landscape: Analysis of landscape and urban planning contributions. Landscape and Urban Planning, 84(1), 51-59. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. McFarland, A. L., Waliczek, T. M. & Zajicek, J. M. (2008). The relationship between student use of campus green spaces and perceptions of quality of life. HortTechnology, 18(3), 423-429. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Nakandi, J., Opolot, C. & Omara, T. (2024). Campus green space and mental health among university students in Uganda. BMC Public Health, 24, 567. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. National Universities Commission. (2019). NUC approved benchmarks for academic programmes in Nigerian universities (11th ed.). NUC Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Ndetei, R., Mwangi, J. & Kinoti, E. (2020). Shade provision and outdoor dwell time in Kenyan university campuses: A restorative environment study. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 70, 101478. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Nnaeto, P. O., Olusola, A. O. & Fasina, O. A. (2026). Assessment of outdoor spaces in Caleb University, Lagos: A mixed-methods evaluation of student usage, satisfaction, and perceived wellbeing. Journal of Environmental Design, 12(1), 45-62. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Nunnally, J. C. & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Nwabuna, N. P., Chima, I. O., & Ntaji, P. U. (2023). Landscape Design and Architecture for Outdoor Learning Spaces: A Case Study of Akanu Ibiam Federal Polytechnic Unwana, Nigeria. African Journal of Environmental Sciences and Renewable Energy, 11(1), 15-39. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Omoge, A. O., Omoge, M. O., Arogundade, A. O., Erinsakin, O. B., & Oyetunji, O. O. (2026). Factors contributing to mental health issues in Nigeria: a scoping review of their prevalence, associated factors, and patterns. Mental Wellness, 4. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L. & McMahon, T. A. (2007). Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 11(5), 1633-1644. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y. & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879-903. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Preiser, W. F. E. & Vischer, J. C. (2005). Assessing building performance. Elsevier. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Scannell, L. & Gifford, R. (2010). Defining place attachment: A tripartite organizing framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30(4), 422-433. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Si, J., Lu, Y., Chen, Q., Li, B., Chen, D. & Liu, X. (2024). Blue spaces and student mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Health and Place, 82, 103156. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Simonds, J. O., & Starke, B. W. (2006). Landscape architecture: A manual of environmental planning and design. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Social Work Portal (2024, April 13). 2024 guide on the BPS model & assessment in mental health and social work: Unveiling the transformative BPS model of health. Everything you need to know. https://www.socialworkportal.com/bps-model/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Tabachnick, B. G. & Fidell, L. S. (2019). Using multivariate statistics (7th ed.). Pearson. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Topp, C. W., Ostergaard, S. D., Sondergaard, S. & Bech, P. (2015). The WHO-5 Well-Being Index: A systematic review of the literature. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 84(3), 167-176. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Toros, T. U. L. U. (2011). Restorative design: Toward environmental restoration. Unpublished Master’s Report). Manhattan, KS: Kansas State University. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Uduma-Olugu, N., Onukwube, H. & Ayoola, H. (2019). Assessment of landscape elements and student preferences at the University of Lagos, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Management, 246, 824-833. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Ulrich, R. S. (1983). View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science, 224(4647), 420-421. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Ulrich, R. S. (1991). Psychophysiological indicators of leisure benefits. In B. L. Driver, P. J. Brown, and G. L. Peterson (Eds.), Benefits of leisure (pp. 73-89). Venture Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Ulrich, R. S., Simons, R. F., Losito, B. D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M. A. & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11(3), 201-230. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Volker, S. & Kistemann, T. (2011). The impact of blue space on human health and well-being: Salutogenetic health effects of inland surface waters: A review. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 214(6), 449-460. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. White, M. P., Alcock, I., Wheeler, B. W. & Depledge, M. H. (2013). Coastal proximity, health and well-being: Results from a longitudinal panel survey. Health and Place, 23, 97-103. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Wilson, E. O. (1984). Biophilia: The human bond with other species. Harvard University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Wunubo, A. S., Ibrahim, A. D. & Musa, Z. (2022). Green space preferences and usage patterns among students at Gombe State University, Nigeria. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 4, 892345. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis (2nd ed.). Harper and Row. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Re-Validating the Uniqueness of Urban Morphology of the Shekhawati Region Through Reconnaissance Using Hotspot Analysis
• Golden Ages and Emerging Needs: Rethinking old Age Homes as Self Sustained Communities
• The Missing Link between Colonial Jack Arch Roofing and Indigenous Construction Practices in India
• Archiving Kolakopa - A Study on the Present Condition and the Architectural Features of an Evanescing Historic Settlement.
• Analysing Vendor Lock-In in Serverless Architectures