Implementation Strategies and Institutional Challenges of China's Basic Education Policy

China's basic education reforms, following national plans such as the 2010-2020 National Plan and the Education Modernization 2035 strategy, have effectively increased access to education and created a system that focuses on both quality and fairness. However, this organized literature review shows a big difference between what policies intend to do and how they are actually carried out at the local level. The study says that although approaches like fiscal equalization and teacher rotation make sense, they don't work well because there are deep-seated problems within the system. These include a culture that focuses too much on exams, which stops new teaching methods from being used, not enough rewards for teachers, and the harmful side effects of policies like closing down schools in rural areas. Ongoing problems such as the hukou system and the digital divide make inequality worse. The study says that to be successful in the future, we need to go beyond just creating policies. We should focus on building stronger local abilities, making sure everyone's goals match, and using methods that fit the specific situation to ensure fair results for all.

China Education Reform, Policy Implementation, Institutional Challenges

1. Booth, A., Sutton, A., & Papaioannou, D. (2016). Systematic approaches to a successful literature review (2nd ed.). Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Chen, S. (2023). Children left behind: An implementation analysis of migrant children’s education reform inChina. Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media, *19*, 152–160. https://doi.org/10.54254/2753-7048/19/20231413 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Cheng, Y. (2020). Educational reforms in China: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Educational Policy, 35(2), 123–145. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. CPC Central Committee & State Council. (2019, February 23). China issues plan to modernize education by 2035 [Policy document]. Xinhua/State Council. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. CPC General Office & State Council General Office. (2021, July 24). Opinions on further reducing the homework burden and off-campus training burden of students in compulsory education (“Double Reduction”) [Policy document]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Ding, X., & Wu, Y. (2024). [Context: Informal tutoring networks post-Double Reduction]. [Source: User-provided context; publication details incomplete]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Financial Times. (2025, July 25). Chinese kindergartens in crisis as enrolments plunge 25% in 4 years. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Guo, S., Sun, T., Gong, J., Lu, Z., Zhang, L., & Wang, Q. (2022). Remote co-teaching in rural classroom: Current practices, impacts, and challenges. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Hannum, E., & Wang, F. (2022). Fewer, better pathways for all? Intersectional impacts of rural school consolidation in China’s minority regions. World Development. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Human Rights Watch. (2013, July 16). As long as they let us stay in class [Report on disabled pupils]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Li, J., & Li, K. (2023). Examining the challenges and strategies of student learning burden reduction policy implementation. Beijing International Review of Education, 5(3). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Liao, W. (2017). Understanding an emerging “failure” of an equality-oriented teacher policy: Free Teacher Education. International Journal of Educational Development.First published: 13 August 2023 https://doi.org/10.1002/fer3.8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Lin, T., Chen, J., & Zhang, H. (2024). [Context: ICT effectiveness and teacher roles]. ACM Digital Library. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2022, May 7). MOE releases compulsory education curriculum program and standards (2022 edition) [Press release]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China. (2022). Statistical report on China’s educational achievements in 2021 [Report]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. OECD. (2023). Education Policy Outlook 2023. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/education-policy-outlook-2023_f5063653-en.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. OECD (2020), Benchmarking the Performance of China's Education System10.1787/4ab33702-en. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Qin, Z. (2024). “Reflections on educational reform supporting build China into a world leader in science and technology.” [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Springer. (2020). The transformation of government responsibility and the development of educational policies for early childhood education reform in China. In Early childhood education in China. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. State Council Leading Group for Education Evaluation Reform. (2020). Overall plan for deepening the reform of education evaluation in the new era [Policy document]. SCIRP. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. UNESCO. (2023). Mid-term progress review of SDG 4 – Education 2030 in East Asia: China. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/mid-term-progress-review-sdg-4-education-2030-east-asia-china [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. UNESCO (2023). “China: National Plan for Medium- and Long-Term Education Reform and Development: 2020, issued 2010.” [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. UNICEF China. (2024). [Report on left-behind children and policy responses]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Wikipedia. (2025). Double Reduction Policy. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Reduction_Policy [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Wikipedia. (2025). Education inequality https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_inequality_in_China [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. World Bank. (2023). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Education Finance Watch 2023. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/5e673a53-383e-4436-a49a-35098afcd303 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Yang, B. (2024). County performance evaluation study: Reports national shares of counties attaining balanced development by 2020. ScienceDirect. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Zhou, B. (2019). From scale to quality: Experiences and challenges in teacher education in China. ECNU Review of Education. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Assessment of the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Repositioning TVET for Economic Development in Nigeria
• Teachers’ Use of Assure Model Instructional Design on Learners’ Problem Solving Efficacy in Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya
• “E-Booksan Ang Kaalaman”: Development, Validation, and Utilization of Electronic Book in Academic Performance of Grade 9 Students in Social Studies
• Analyzing EFL University Students’ Academic Speaking Skills Through Self-Recorded Video Presentation
• Major Findings of The Study on Total Quality Management in Teachers’ Education Institutions (TEIs) In Assam – An Evaluative Study