Influence of Teachers’ Long-Term IEP Goal Development on Functional Skills Acquisition among Learners with Autism in Kenyan Special Units

Effective implementation of Individualized Education Programme (IEPs) is critical for supporting functional skills development among learners with autism at the foundation and intermediate levels of education. This study investigated the influence of teachers’ development of long-term goals within IEPS on the acquisition of functional skills among learners with autism in special units in Kenya. The study employed a mixed–methods design. Quantitative data were collected using questionnaires administered to teachers in special units and analyzed using descriptive statistics and logistic regression. Qualitative data were gathered through document analysis, interviews and observations and were analyzed thematically involving 47 teachers and 62 learners with ASD IEP files special units. Findings from both strands were integrated through triangulation. The results revealed that teacher participation in the development of long-term goals significantly influenced learners’ acquisition of functional skills. Logistic regression analysis revealed that learners whose teachers developed long-term goals to a large extent were significantly more likely to acquire functional skills (OR= 2.314, p = .037). Findings indicate that clearly defined, measurable and learner centered long-term goals enhance the effectiveness of IEP implementation and improve learner outcomes. However, qualitative analysis revealed inadequate individualization of IEPs, as teachers frequently developed common functional skill goals for learners within the same level rather than tailoring goals to individual needs and abilities. The study concludes that the development of individualized long-term goals is a key factor in promoting functional skill acquisition among learners with autism. It recommends strengthening teachers’ capacity to develop developmentally appropriate, data-driven measurable and individualized learning outcomes that address the unique needs of each learner. Enhanced professional training and support in IEP development may improve the quality of educational programming and functional outcomes for learners with autism in special units. The effectiveness of IEP implementation depends not merely on the existence of long-term goals but on the development of individualized, measurable, and functionally relevant goals that are linked to learners' present levels of performance

Individualized Education Programme (IEP), Long-term goals

1. Adams, S. N. (2024). The unmasking of autism in South Africa and Nigeria. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 20, 947–955. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S461650 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Adelodun, G. A. (2019). Special education and sustainable development goals in Africa. International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport and Dance. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Ainscow, M. (2020). Promoting inclusion and equity in education: Lessons from international experiences. Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy, 6(1), 7–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/20020317.2020.1729587 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Amin, M. E. (2005). Social science research: Conception, methodology and analysis. Makerere University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Billingsley, B., McLeskey, J., & Crockett, J. B. (2020). Principal leadership: Moving toward inclusive and high-achieving schools for students with disabilities. CEEDAR Center [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Boavida T., Aguiar C., McWilliam R. (2014). A training program to improve IFSP/IEP goals and objectives through the routines-based interview. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 33(4), 200–211. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121413494416 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2014). What Can “Thematic Analysis” Offer Health and Wellbeing Researchers? International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 9(1), 26152. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Braun, V., Clarke, V., Boulton, E., Davey, L., & McEvoy, C. (2021). The Online Survey as A Qualitative Research Tool. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 24(6), 641-654 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Capizzi A. M. (2008). From Assessment to Annual Goal: Engaging a Decision-Making Process in Writing Measurable IEPs. Volume 41, Issue 1 https://doi.org/10.1177/004005990804100102 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). London: Routledge. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Cox, S. K., Barrett, C. A., Chavez, G., Bagasrawala, L., & Saur, R. (2025). Examining the IEP goals and mathematical outcomes of autistic students across 2 years. Remedial and Special Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325251388083 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2017). Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Fallon, L. M., Collier-Meek, M. A., & Kurtz, K. D. (2019). Feasible coaching supports to promote teachers' classroom management in high-need settings: An experimental single case design study. School Psychology Review, 48(1), 3-17. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Goran, L., Harkins Monaco, E. A., Yell, M. L., Shriner, J., & Bateman, D. (2020). Pursuing Academic and Functional Advancement: Goals, Services, and Measuring Progress. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 52(6), 397–406. doi.org/10.1177/0040059920919924 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Kan, D. D. D., Hume, K. A., Ng, J. M., et al. (2025). Relationship between self-determination and IEP goal attainment for autistic adolescents. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/21651434251333405 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Karal, M. A., & Wolfe, P. S. (2018). Social Story Effectiveness on Social Interaction for Students with Autism: A Review of the Literature. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 53(1), 44-58. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Kassai, R., Futo, J., Demetrovics, Z., & Takacs, Z. K. (2019). A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence on the near-and far-transfer effects among children’s executive function skills. Psychological Bulletin, 145(2), 165. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Kiambati, F. G., Ngware, M., & Waweru-Mwangi, C. (2025). Support for learners with learning disabilities: A call for differentiated and individualized instruction. African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Kobayashi, C., Warner, P., & Dickinson, P. (2024). Spelling it out, making it count: functional skills in vocational training. https://www.gatsby.org.uk/education/reports [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Kothari, C. R., & Garg, G. (2019). Research methodology: Methods and techniques (4th ed.). New Delhi: New Age International. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and psychological measurement, 30(3), 607-610. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Kurth, J. A., Born, K., & Love, H. (2019). Special education teacher preparation and family-professional partnerships. Teacher Education and Special Education, 42(1), 76–89. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Kyngäs, H., Kääriäinen, M., & Elo, S. (2020). The Trustworthiness of Content Analysis. The Application of Content Analysis in Nursing Science Research, 41-48.DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-30199-6_5 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Laghi, F., & Trimarco, B. (2020). Individual planning starts at school. Tools and practices promoting autonomy and supporting transition to work for adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Annali dell'Istituto superiore di sanita, 56(2), 222-229. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Lu, M., Cui, T., Huang, Z., Zhao, H., Li, T., & Wang, K. (2021). A Systematic Review of Questionnaire-Based Quantitative Research on MOOCs. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 22(2), 285-313. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Moretti, M. (2021). Analysis of Prerequisite Factors in the Practices of Teachers in Inclusive Education in Primary Schools. A Cross-National Comparative Study Among a Region of Italy and a Canton of Switzerland (Doctoral dissertation, University of Zurich). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Müller, E., Wood, C. L., Cannon, L., & Childress, D. (2023). Impact of an IEP goal builder on social goals for autistic students. Journal of Special Education Technology. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576221125488 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches. Acts Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Nthibeli, M., Griffiths, D., & Bekker, T. (2022). Teaching learners with autism in the South African inclusive classroom: Pedagogic strategies and possibilities. African Journal of Disability, 11, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajod.v11i0.979 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Ola-Williams, M. C., Ola-Williams, A., & Ogbaini, C. A. (2024). Breaking barriers: Enhancing support for autistic students through individual education programs. International Journal of Universal Education, 2(1), 50–60. https://doi.org/10.33084/ijue.v2i1.7528 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Poitras, I., Dupuis, F., Bielmann, M., Campeau-Lecours, A., Mercier, C., Bouyer, L. J., & Roy, J. S. (2019). Validity and Reliability of Wearable Sensors for Joint Angle Estimation: A Systematic Review. Sensors, 19(7), 1555. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Railey, K. S., Love, A. M., & Campbell, J. M. (2020). A Systematic Review of Law Enforcement Training Related to Autism Spectrum Disorder. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 35(4), 221-233. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Ruble, L., & McGrew, J. H. (2013). Teacher and child predictors of achieving IEP goals of children with autism. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 43(12), 2748-2763. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Schrepp, M. (2020). On the Usage of Cronbach's Alpha to Measure Reliability of UX Scales. Journal of Usability Studies, 15(4). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Timans, R., Wouters, P., & Heilbron, J. (2019). Mixed Methods Research: What It Is and What It Could Be. Theory And Society, 48, 193-216. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2021). Seen, counted, included: Using data to shed light on the well-being of children with disabilities. UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/reports/seen-counted-included-disability-report [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2020). Global education monitoring report 2020: Inclusion and education—All means all. UNESCO Publishing. https://gem-report-2020.unesco.org [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. van Biljon, S., & Kritzinger, A. M. (2019). Early identification of learners with autism spectrum disorder: Drawing on developmental histories. Early Child Development and Care, 189(1), 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2017.1301934 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Waithaka N, C. (2015). Exploring Setbacks of Developing Individualised Education Program for Learners with Physical Disabilities and Hearing Impairments in Kiambu County, Kenya (Doctoral dissertation, KENYATTA UNIVERSITY). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Yell, M. L., Bateman, D., & Shriner, J. (2020). Developing and Implementing Educationally Meaningful and Legally Sound IEPs: Bringing It All Together. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 52(5), 344–347. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059920919087 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Assessment of the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Repositioning TVET for Economic Development in Nigeria
• Teachers’ Use of Assure Model Instructional Design on Learners’ Problem Solving Efficacy in Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya
• “E-Booksan Ang Kaalaman”: Development, Validation, and Utilization of Electronic Book in Academic Performance of Grade 9 Students in Social Studies
• Analyzing EFL University Students’ Academic Speaking Skills Through Self-Recorded Video Presentation
• Major Findings of The Study on Total Quality Management in Teachers’ Education Institutions (TEIs) In Assam – An Evaluative Study