Lexical Approach and Reading-Writing Competence among Foreign Language Learners

This study investigated how the Lexical Approach improves the reading-writing competence of foreign language learners. Specifically, using a quantitative, one-group pre-test post-test pre-experimental research design, the study involved 37 students from the Special Program in Foreign Language (SPFL)-Korean at Boot National High School during the school year 2025-2026.
The findings indicated that the Lexical Approach has a significant impact on improving reading and writing competence among the respondents. In terms of reading, there were improvements in Word Recognition (where 97.2% needed improvement, while 65% were Highly Competent in the post-test) and Vocabulary Knowledge (89% reached the Highly Competent level after the implementation of the Lexical Approach). In writing competence, Accuracy and Fluency demonstrated improvements, with 91.9% and 81% of students reaching the Highly Competent level, respectively. However, the study found no significant difference in Language Comprehension and Coherence, suggesting that these higher-order competences might require more instructional periods.
Based on the results, the study concludes that the Lexical Approach is an effective instructional methodology for improving learners' reading and writing competence.

Lexical Approach, Reading Competence, Writing Competence Korean Language

1. Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A Multi-Disciplinary Approach [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Dudley-Evans, T., & St. John, M. J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Rand McNally. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Creswell, J. W. (2014/2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. DeKeyser, R. (2007). Practice in a second language. In Cambridge University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511667275 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Hikmah, N., Akmal, A., & Buffe, F. (2019, November). Writing skills of junior high school students of the University of Saint Anthony, Iriga City, Philippines. In 2019 Ahmad Dahlan International Conference Series on Education & Learning, Social Science & Humanities (ADICS-ELSSH 2019) (pp. 156-159). Atlantis Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. Longman. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach: The state of ELT and a way forward. Language Teaching Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Nassaji, H. (2015). The interactional feedback dimension in instructed second language learning: Linking Theory, Research, and Practice. Bloomsbury Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Nation, I. S. P. (2013). Learning vocabulary in another language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Nation, I. S. P., & Hunston, S. (2013). Learning vocabulary in another language. In Cambridge University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139858656 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Perfetti, C. A., & Adlof, S. M. (2012). Reading comprehension: A conceptual framework. In Measuring up: Advances in how to assess reading ability (pp. 3–20). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Perfetti, C. A., & Hart, L. (2002). The lexical quality hypothesis. In Precursors of functional literacy (pp. 189–213). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for causal inference. Houghton Mifflin. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Stani, M. D., Malik, H. A., & Yuliwati, Y. (2024, December). The effect of phonological awareness, sight recognition, decoding on reading skills children. In Proceeding of International Conference on Education (Vol. 3, pp. 51-62). https://doi.org/10.37640/ICE.03.983 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Stranovská, E., Ficzere, A., & Gadusova, Z. (2020). Cognitive structure and foreign language reading comprehension. In INTED2020 Proceedings (pp. 5010-5016). IATED. https://doi.org/10.21125/inted.2020.1369 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Wray, A. (2002). Formulaic language and the lexicon. In Cambridge University Press eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511519772 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Journals [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Adam, P., Droop, M., Kleemans, T., & Segers, E. (2025). Parental Language and Literacy and Not the Home Literacy Environment Predict Language and Early Literacy in Indonesian Low SES Kindergartners. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 41(6). https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2025.2469241 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Alobaid, A. (2020). Smart multimedia learning of ICT: Role and impact on language learners’ writing fluency YouTube online English learning resources as an example. Smart Learning Environments, 7(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-020-00134-7 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Andres, H. M., Santos, M., Cruz, A., & Villanueva, R. (2023). Problems, strategies, and developments of Filipino KFL learners in learning the Korean language. International Journal of Language Learning and Language Teaching, 5(1), 23-34. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Anindita, P. (2024). Cohesion and coherence problems among non-native English students’ writing essays. Journal of Lensa: Linguistics, Literature, and Culture, 14(1), 58–79. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Araujo, K. L. E., Marcaida, J. L. M., Balderama, A. C., Lozano, W. M., Carinan, J. A., Quizon, E. M. T., & Artagame, J. K. T. (2024). The power of the pen: An analysis on the coherence and cohesion skills of senior high school students. Ignatian International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research, 2(2), 204–225. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Attya, A. E. S. E. S., Qoura, A. A., & Mostafa, A. A. (2019). Using the lexical approach-based activities to enhance EFL preparatory stage students' vocabulary learning. Journal of Research in Curriculum Instruction and Educational Technology, 4(2), 73–91. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Barbecho, E. T., Gorro, K. D., Comeros, J. S., & Capuno, G. R. J. (2025). Linguistic features of the writing competence of the Alternative Learning System students. Journal of Education and Learning (EduLearn), 19(4), 2128–2138. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Barrot, J., & Gabinete, M. K. (2021). Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in the argumentative writing of ESL and EFL learners. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 59(2), 209–232. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Bernardo, A. B. I. (2004). McKinley’s questionable bequest: Over 100 years of English in Philippine education. World Englishes, 23(1), 17–31. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Bilge, H., & Kalenderoglu, I. (2022). The relationship between reading fluency, writing fluency, speaking fluency, reading comprehension, and vocabulary. Education and Science, 47(209), 25–53. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Biskup, D., & Acquisition, L. L. (1992). L2 lexical acquisition from dictionaries. Language Learning, 42(2), 217-244. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Bittmann, F. (2025). Reading begets reading? Disentangling the dynamic interplay between reading competence and reading exposure with a special focus on gender differences. Reading Research Quarterly, 60(1), e566. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.566 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Blas, F. A., et al. (2018). Articulated difficulties of Grade 11 students at Taytay Senior High School in English proficiency. PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences, 3(3), 1186–1202. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Calanza, R., Nalagon, S. M., Enario, H. G., & Cahapay, M. (2026). iRead333: An intervention to improve silent reading comprehension skills of learners in English. International Journal of Professional Development, Learners and Learning, 8(1), e2607. https://doi.org/10.30935/ijpdll/18052 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1–47. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Cancino, M., & Iturrieta, J. (2022). Assessing the impact of the Lexical Approach on EFL perceived oral proficiency. Vigo International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19, 41–66. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Cappelle, B., et al. (2021). Constructional variation – unveiling aspects of linguistic Knowledge. Revista da Anpoll, 52(esp), 258-306. https://doi.org/10.18309/ranpoll.v52iesp.1596 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Caraig, R., & Quimbo, M. A. (2022). Assessing reading comprehension difficulties in core science subjects of senior high school students. International Journal of Curriculum and Instruction, 14(3), 1983–2010. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Chen, T., Xu, X., Hao, Y., & Ke, S. E. (2023). Connecting the dots: the contribution of orthographic knowledge to L2 Chinese reading comprehension through serial mediation of word decoding and listening comprehension. Reading and Writing, 36(5), 1261-1282. https://doi.org/10.1017/S11145-022-10342X [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Cho, Y. (2009). Lexical chunking in second language writing: Korean EFL learners. English Teaching, 64(2), 3–25. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Crossley, S. A. (2020). Linguistic features in writing quality. Journal of Writing Research, 12(2), 415-443. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2020.12.02.04 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Dobrovolska, N. (2025). Techniques for developing foreign language competences in reading and speaking. Actual Problems of Humanities, 83(2), 265. https://doi.org/10.24919/2308-4863/83-2-39 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Dong, Y., Tang, Y., Chow, B. W. Y., Wang, W., & Dong, W. Y. (2020). Contribution of vocabulary knowledge to reading comprehension among Chinese students: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 525369. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Fitriani, V. (2024). Coherence and cohesion: An analysis of students’ narrative paragraphs. Jurnal Penelitian Mahasiswa Indonesia, 4(2), 134–152. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Guanoluisa Toapanta, L. C. (2021). Lexical Approach method to improve speaking skill of 7th year students. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Habók, A., & Magyar, A. (2019). The effects of EFL reading comprehension and certain learning-related factors on EFL learners’ reading strategy use. Cogent Education, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1616522 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Hojjat, M., & Hasim, Z. (2023). Implicit form-focused instruction: The impact on the implicit and explicit knowledge of Malaysian ESL learners. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13(2), 380–391. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v13i2.63081 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Huang, B. H., & Choi, J. Y. (2026). Exploring the relationships among language input-output, vocabulary knowledge, and English Reading development of emergent bilinguals in dual language immersion programs. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 29(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2025.2546423 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Incognito, O., Mercugliano, A., & Bigozzi, L. (2023). Influence of Lexical Development on Reading and Spelling Skills: Effects of Enhancement on Second-Grade Children Primary School. Children, 10(8), 1416. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10081416 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Kamarudin, R., Abdullah, S., & Abdul Aziz, R. (2020). Examining ESL learners' knowledge of collocations. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 9(1), 1-6. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Kim, H. J. (2023). Cognitive load and sentence ordering tasks in Korean as a foreign language. Korean Linguistics Today, 18(1), 45-68. https://doi.org/10.1017/S123456782300012X [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Kormos, J. (2023). The role of cognitive factors in second language writing and writing to learn a second language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 45(3), 622–646. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0272263122000481 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Lai, A.-F., Chen, C.-H., & Lee, G.-Y. (2019). An augmented reality-based learning approach to enhancing students’ science reading performances from the perspective of the cognitive load theory. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50, 232-247. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12716 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Laufer, B., & Nation, I. S. P. (1999). A vocabulary-size test of controlled productive ability. Language Testing, 16(1), 33–51. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Lee, H., & Kim, Y. (2014). Lexical inference strategies in L2 Korean reading. Korean Language Education Research, 10(1), 45–68. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Leonard, K. R. (2019). Examining the relationship between decoding and comprehension in L2 listening. System, 87, 102150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.10215 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Liu, H., Chen, X., & Liu, X. (2022). Factors influencing secondary school students’ reading literacy: An analysis based on XGBoost and SHAP methods. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.948612 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Lorente, C. L., & Tupas, R. (2014). (Re)imagining English language teaching in the Philippines. Philippine ESL Journal, 12, 3–22. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Misuari-Abdurasul, S. A. M. (2023). Vocabulary proficiency: Its influence on reading comprehension skills. International Journal of Management Studies and Social Science Research, 5(03), 382–395. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Northbrook, E., & Conklin, K. (2019). Is formulaic language a recipe for success in the EAP classroom? Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 42, 100790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2019.100790 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Orellana, P., Silva, M., & Iglesias, V. (2024). Students’ reading comprehension level and reading demands in teacher education programs: the elephant in the room? Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1324055 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Perfetti, C., & Stafura, J. (2014). Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18, 22–37. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Quinn, J. M., et al. (2025). Exploring the relationships among language input-output, vocabulary knowledge, and English Reading development. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2025.2546423 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. Ratminingsih, N. M., Marhaeni, A. A. I. N., & Vigayanti, L. P. D. (2018). Self-assessment and writing competence. International Journal of Instruction, 11(3), 277–290. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. Reyes, D. Z. (2020). A fondness for lexical teddy bears. Alipato: A Journal of Basic Education, 12, 165–180. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

66. Riswanto, R. (2021). Cohesion and coherence of EFL students’ essay writing. JPGI, 6(4), 850–856. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

67. Rohm, T., Carstensen, C. H., Fischer, L., & Gnambs, T. (2021). The achievement gap in reading competence: the effect of measurement non-invariance across school types. Large-scale Assessments in Education, 9(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-021-00116-2 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

68. Santillan, J. P., & Daenos, R. G. (2020). Vocabulary knowledge and learning strategies of senior high school students. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(6), 2474–2482. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

69. Sewbihon-Getie, A. (2021). Impact of lexical instruction on EFL learners. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 12(3), 456–467. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

70. Sun, Y. (2022). Role of Extensive Reading in Vocabulary Development, Reading Comprehension, and Reading Speed: A Systematic Literature Review. ERIC Document Reproduction Service. https://doi.org/10.32601/ejal.11108 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

71. Talosa, A. D., & Maguddayao, R. N. (2018). Evaluation of second language learners’ syntactic errors. TESOL International Journal, 13(4), 172–181. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

72. Taskiran, A., Yazici, M., & Erdem Aydin, I. (2024). Automated feedback and English writing competence. E-Learning and Digital Media, 21(1), 24–41. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

73. Tinkel, J. (2023). Lexical-based programs and recognition of lexical chunks in L2 writing. Applied Linguistics Review, 14(2), 201–218. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

74. Tupas, T. R. F. (2015). Inequalities of multilingualism in the Philippines. World Englishes, 34(3), 387–399. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

75. Urbano, C. M., Gumangan, M. A., Gustilo, L., & Capacete, M. P. A. (2021). Reading and writing needs of senior high school students. Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Literature, 3(1), 140–166. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

76. Wang, Y., & Webb, S. (2026). Second language knowledge of academic collocations and its relationship with knowledge of academic words. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. https://doi.org/10.1017/S027226312400034X [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

77. Wawire, B. A., & Zuilkowski, S. S. (2021). The role of vocabulary and decoding language skills in reading comprehension: a cross-linguistic perspective. International Multilingual Research Journal, 15(1), 23-42. https://doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2020.1753953 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

78. Webb, S. (2007). The effects of repetition on vocabulary knowledge. Applied Linguistics. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

79. Zhao, J., & Huang, J. (2023). A comparative study of frequency effect on acquisition of grammar and meaning of words between Chinese and foreign learners of English language. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1125483 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

80. Zhou, L., Xi, Y., & Lochtman, K. (2023). The relationship between second language competence and willingness to communicate: the moderating effect of foreign language anxiety. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 44(2), 129–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2020.1801697 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

81. Ziafar, M., & Namaziandost, E. (2019). Linguistics, SLA and lexicon as the unit of language. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Translation, 2(5). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Evaluating the Impacts of Mind Mapping Strategy on Developing EFL Students’ Critical Reading Skills
• Significance of Reading Instructions for Language Improvement in Children with Down Syndrome
• Prenasalised Consonants in Liangmai
• Metadiscourse Matters: Definitions, Models, and Advantages for ESL/ EFL Writing
• Blank Minds and Stuck Voices: Understanding and Addressing Cognitive Anxiety in High-Stakes ESL Speaking Tests