Perceptions of Rural Smallholder Farmers on Modern Warehouses and Factors Influencing Choice for Maize Storage: Evidence from Karaga District, Ghana.

Modern warehouse storage systems represent a viable approach to reducing post-harvest losses, especially in rural Ghana, where smallholder agriculture predominates. This study examines rural smallholder farmers’ perceptions of the efficiency and affordability of modern warehouses, as well as the factors influencing their preference for maize storage, drawing on evidence from the Karaga District of Northern Ghana. Primary data were collected from a randomly sampled 400 smallholder maize farmers through surveys and focus group discussion. Data analysis employed descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model. Findings reveal that farmers generally expressed slightly positive perceptions of modern warehouse storage systems, with an overall perception index of 3.25. Efficiency perception index averaged 3.33, whiles the affordability index was 3.18. Highlighting the efficiency level and cost effectiveness perceived by smallholder farmers regarding modern warehouses. However, physical access to warehouse facilities remains a barrier for some farmers, particularly those in remote communities. The overall risk perception index was 3.08, suggesting a neutral stance on the risks associated with modern warehouse storage systems. Rodent attacks and inadequate documentation emerged as the most significant risk factors. Empirical analysis identified gender, years of formal education, means of transport, income, and access to credit as significant determinants of farmers’ decisions to utilize modern warehouses for maize storage. The study recommends upgrading existing district warehouses to improve efficiency and constructing additional community warehouses to enhance access and affordability. Additionally, strengthening extension delivery services is advised to increase farmers' awareness of the benefits of modern warehouse facilities.

Modern Warehouse, Maize Storage, Rural Smallholder Farmers, Perceptions, Post-harvest Losses

1. Abdulai, F., & Abdulai, A. F. (2023). Utilisation of maize postharvest strategies and practices among farmers in the Yendi Municipality of the Northern Region of Ghana. International Journal of Postharvest Technology and Innovation, 9(1), 56–71. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPTI.2023.136333 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Abdul-Jalil, M.-A. (2015). Determinants of access to credit and its impact on household food security in Karaga district of the Northern region of Ghana. https://ir.knust.edu.gh/handle/123456789/8049 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Adams, A. A., Akrofi, M. N. A., & Sarpong, D. B. (2025). The choice of maize (Zea mays L.) storage facility among farmers in the Sissala East District in northern Ghana: What are the determinants? Journal of Stored Products Research, 111, 102571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2025.102571 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Adams, A., Osei-Amponsah, C., & Jumpah, E. T. (2020). Analysing the determinants, constraints and opportunities of smallholder farmers access to input markets: evidence from northern Ghana. Journal of Agribusiness and Rural Development, 56(2), 133–143. https://doi.org/10.17306/J.JARD.2020.01286 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Adjei-Baiden, D., Nimoh, F., Gaveh, E. A., & Prah, S. (2025). Farmers’ perception and adoption of local hybrid maize seed in the Upper West region of Ghana. Discover Agriculture 2025 3:1, 3(1), 221-. https://doi.org/10.1007/S44279-025-00396-0 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Adu, G. B., Badu-Apraku, B., Akromah, R., Amegbor, I. K., Adogoba, D. S., Haruna, A., Manigben, K. A., Aboyadana, P. A., & Wiredu, A. N. (2021). Trait profile of maize varieties preferred by farmers and value chain actors in northern Ghana. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 41(4), 50. https://doi.org/10.1007/S13593-021-00708-W [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Affoukou, K. T., Akom, M., Lutomia, A. N., Adekoya, A., Medendorp, J., Pittendrigh, B. R., & Bello-Bravo, J. (2025). Impacts of Age, Gender, and Education on Reported Adoption of Jerrycan Post-Harvest Prevention Technique After Mass-Scaling of Educational Animations in Ghana, Kenya, and Nigeria. SAGE Open, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251398123;ISSUE:ISSUE:DOI [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Akumbole, J. A., Zakaria, H., & Adam, H. (2018). Determinants of Adoption of Improved Maize Technology among Smallholder Maize Farmers in the Bawku West District of the Upper East Region of Ghana. B.R. Nahata Smriti Sansthan Agricultural Extension Journal (AEXTJ), 2(3), 165–175. https://doi.org/10.22377/AEXTJ.V2I3.106 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Alem, H., Jumpah, E. T., & Bavorova, M. (2026). Sustainable intensification and land use efficiency among smallholder maize farmers in northern Ghana. Land Use Policy, 165, 108002. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LANDUSEPOL.2026.108002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Ariong, R. M., Okello, D. M., Otim, M. H., & Paparu, P. (2023). The cost of inadequate postharvest management of pulse grain: Farmer losses due to handling and storage practices in Uganda. Agriculture & Food Security 2023 12:1, 12(1), 20-. https://doi.org/10.1186/S40066-023-00423-7 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Armah, P. W., & Asante, F. A. (2006). Traditional Maize Storage Systems and Staple-Food Security in Ghana. Journal of Food Distribution Research, 37(1), 34–39. https://doi.org/10.22004/AG.ECON.8575 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Arthur, E., Akowuah, J. O., Obeng-Akrofi, G., Arthur, E., Akowuah, J. O., & Obeng-Akrofi, G. (2022). Assessment of the Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bag for maize storage in Ghana. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development (AJFAND), 22(06). https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:ags:ajfand:334071 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Asante, B. O., Ma, W., Prah, S., & Temoso, O. (2024). Farmers’ adoption of multiple climate-smart agricultural technologies in Ghana: determinants and impacts on maize yields and net farm income. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 2024 29:2, 29(2), 16-. https://doi.org/10.1007/S11027-024-10114-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Azumah, F. D., Onzaberigu, N. J., & Adongo, A. A. (2022). Gender, agriculture and sustainable livelihood among rural farmers in northern Ghana. Economic Change and Restructuring 2022 56:5, 56(5), 3257–3279. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10644-022-09399-Z [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Bawa, A. (2025). Assessing the climate change and its impact on livelihoods of smallholder farmers in Karaga district of Ghana. Asia Pacific Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, Food and Energy, 13(1), 20–35. https://doi.org/10.36782/APJSAFE.V13I1.490 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Benimana, G. U., Ritho, C., & Irungu, P. (2021). Assessment of factors affecting the decision of smallholder farmers to use alternative maize storage technologies in Gatsibo District-Rwanda. Heliyon, 7(10). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.HELIYON.2021.E08235 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Bidzakin, J. K., Yeboah, O., Sugri, I., Graves, A., & Awunyo-Vitor, D. (2022). Economics of Bulk Storage Techniques: Maize and Cowpea Storage in Ghana. Advances in Agriculture, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/8953918 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Bidzakin, J. K., Yeboah, O.-A., Sugri, I., Naanwaab, C., Nutsugah, S. K., & Komkiok, J. M. (2016). Status of Postharvest Operations in Upper East Region of Ghana: The Case of Maize Producers. Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology, 8(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.9734/AJAEES/2016/14959 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Cochran, W. G. (1977). Sampling Techniques (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. https://www.scirp.org/reference/ReferencesPapers?ReferenceID=1390266 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Darfour, B., & Rosentrater, K. A. (2016). Agriculture and Food Security in Ghana. 2016 American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers Annual International Meeting, ASABE 2016. https://doi.org/10.13031/AIM.20162460507 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Darfour, B., & Rosentrater, K. A. (2022). Pre-harvest and post-harvest farmer experiences and practices in five maize growing regions in Ghana. Frontiers in Nutrition, 9, 725815. https://doi.org/10.3389/FNUT.2022.725815/TEXT [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. de Jager, I., van de Ven, G. W. J., Giller, K. E., & Brouwer, I. D. (2022). Seasonality and nutrition-sensitive farming in rural Northern Ghana. Food Security 2022 15:2, 15(2), 381–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12571-022-01325-5 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. FAO. (2009). The Use of Warehouse Receipt Finance in Agriculture in Transition Countries. www.fao.org/tc/tci [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. FAO. (2011). Global Food Losses and Food Waste; Extent, Causes and Prevention. https://www.fao.org/4/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. FAO. (2021). The resilience of domestic transport networks in the context of food security – A multi-country analysis. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://doi.org/10.4060/CB7757EN [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. GSS. (2025). Annual Household Income and Expenditure Survey (AHIES) 2022-2024. https://microdata.statsghana.gov.gh/index.php/catalog/128 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Guo, E., Akudugu, M. A., Guo, E., & Akudugu, M. A. (2023). Factors Affecting the Adoption of Agricultural Mechanization Technologies by Women Farmers in the Karaga District of Ghana. Agricultural Sciences, 14(9), 1238–1248. https://doi.org/10.4236/AS.2023.149083 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Heve, W. K., Ninsin, K. D., Osei-Owusu, J., Aidoo, O. F., Akolaa, R. A., & Larbi, L. (2025). Smallholder farmers’ knowledge, practices and perceptions associated with grain storage and hermetic technology in southern Ghana: Implications for awareness and training. Information Development, 41(2), 479–495. https://doi.org/10.1177/02666669231171930;JOURNAL:JOURNAL:IDVA [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Ibrahim, I. B. (2025). The contribution of Ghana’s Planting for Food and Jobs (PFJ) intervention to rural household food security achievement: Case study of Karaga District. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 15(1), 353–374. https://doi.org/10.5304/jafscd.2025.151.017 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Ikerd, J. (2026). THE ECONOMIC PAMPHLETEER: The need for radical changes in community development policies. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 15(3), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.5304/jafscd.2026.153.001 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Issah, S., Mutari, A., John, K., & Osei-Agyeman, Y. (2019). Integrated Postharvest Practices to Reduce Losses in Maize Storage for Smallholders. Advances and Trends in Agricultural Sciences, 2. 10.9734/bpi/atias/v2 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Jarman, A., Thompson, J., McGuire, E., Reid, M., Rubsam, S., Becker, K., & Mitcham, E. (2023). Postharvest technologies for small-scale farmers in low- and middle-income countries: A call to action. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 206, 112491. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.POSTHARVBIO.2023.112491 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Karaga District Assembly. (2020). District Annual Progress Report (APR). Ministry of Local Government Service, Ghana. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Kofi, K., & Grace, D. , A. (2025). Smallholder Farmers’ Willingness to Reduce Post-Harvest Losses: A Case Study in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare. https://doi.org/10.7176/JBAH/15-1-08 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Kotu, B. H., Oyinbo, O., Hoeschle-Zeledon, I., Nurudeen, A. R., Kizito, F., & Boyubie, B. (2022). Smallholder farmers’ preferences for sustainable intensification attributes in maize production: Evidence from Ghana. World Development, 152, 105789. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.WORLDDEV.2021.105789 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Kutyauripo, I., Masamha, B., & Maringe, P. (2021). Exploring climate change adaptation strategies in maize (Zea mays) postharvest management practices among smallholder farmers. Outlook on Agriculture, 50(2), 148–157. https://doi.org/10.1177/00307270211001666;WGROUP:STRING:PUBLICATION [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Kwawu, J. D., Sarpong, D. B., & Agyire-Tettey, F. (2022). Technology adoption intensity and technical efficiency of maize farmers in the Techiman municipality of Ghana. African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, 14(2), 532–545. https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2020.1866145 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Lukman, H. (2020). Modelling Optimal Resource Allocation Patterns For Crop Farme rs In The Karaga District Of Ghana. http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh:8080/handle/123456789/39718 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Makinya, K. J., Wagacha, J. M., Odhiambo, J. A., Likhayo, P., Edoh-Ognakossan, K., Tefera, T., Abass, A., & Mutungi, C. M. (2021). The importance of store hygiene for reducing post-harvest losses in smallholder farmers’ stores: Evidence from a maize-based farming system in Kenya. Journal of Stored Products Research, 90, 101757. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JSPR.2020.101757 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Manandhar, A., Milindi, P., & Shah, A. (2018). An Overview of the Post-Harvest Grain Storage Practices of Smallholder Farmers in Developing Countries. Agriculture 2018, Vol. 8, Page 57, 8(4), 57. https://doi.org/10.3390/AGRICULTURE8040057 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Martey, E., Etwire, P. M., & Kuwornu, J. K. M. (2020). Economic impacts of smallholder farmers’ adoption of drought-tolerant maize varieties. Land Use Policy, 94, 104524. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LANDUSEPOL.2020.104524 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. MoFA. (2017). Appropriate Post Harvest Practices for Improved Grain Storage. https://mofa.gov.gh/site/images/pdf/production_guides/Best_PHM_Practices.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Mohammed, G. B., Adam, H., & Duniya, K. (2019). Factors influencing improved Maize Farming Technologies adoption in Yendi Municipality of Northern Region of Ghana. International Journal of Irrigation and Agricultural Development (IJIRAD), 3(1), 2019. https://doi.org/10.47762/2019.964X.58 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Mohammed, S., Egyir, I. S., & D.P.K, A. (2013). Social Capital and Access to Credit by Farmer Based Organizations in the Karaga District of Northern Ghana. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development, 4(16), 146–155. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEDS/article/view/8476 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Ngwenyama, P., Siziba, S., Nyanga, L. K., Stathers, T. E., Mubayiwa, M., Mlambo, S., Nyabako, T., Bechoff, A., Shee, A., & Mvumi, B. M. (2023). Determinants of smallholder farmers’ maize grain storage protection practices and understanding of the nutritional aspects of grain postharvest losses. Food Security 2023 15:4, 15(4), 937–951. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12571-023-01349-5 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Nimoh, F., Prah, S., Yamoah, F., & Agyei, D. (2024). Consumer perception and willingness to pay for packaged asaana: a traditional drink in Ghana. British Food Journal, 126(3), 1147–1165. https://doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-04-2023-0282 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. N-yanbini, N. N., & Owusu-Ansah, J. K. (2024). Women’s Land Access and Gendered Outcomes in Northern Ghana. Journal of Land and Rural Studies, 12(2), 198–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/23210249241237033 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Nyarko, S. K., Akyereko, Y. G., Akowuah, J. O., & Wireko-Manu, F. D. (2021). Comparative Studies on Grain Quality and Pesticide Residues in Maize Stored in Hermetic and Polypropylene Storage Bags. Agriculture 2021, Vol. 11, Page 772, 11(8), 772. https://doi.org/10.3390/AGRICULTURE11080772 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Owach, C., Bahiigwa, G., & Elepu, G. (2017). Factors Influencing the Use of Food Storage Structures by Agrarian Communities in Northern Uganda. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.5304/JAFSCD.2017.072.003 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Peprah, A. (2004). Comparative Analysis of the Profitability of On-Farm and Institutional Storage of Maize in the Ejura Sekyere-Dumase District of Ghana. http://197.255.68.203/handle/123456789/6827 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Prah, S., Asante, B. O., Aidoo, R., Mensah, J. O., & Nimoh, F. (2023). Impact of agricultural policy intervention on yield and profitability of maize farmers: The case of Planting for Food and Jobs (PFJ) programme in Ghana. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2023.2249928 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Sadiq, M. A., Kuwornu, J. K. M., Al-Hassan, R. M., & Alhassan, S. I. (2019). Assessing Maize Farmers’ Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change and Variability in Ghana. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture9050090 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Safo, N. K. (2017). Impact Of Warehouse Receipt System On Access To Markets And Income Of Smallholder Maize Farmers In The Northern Region Of Ghana. http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh/handle/123456789/23369 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Snider, A., Adraki, P. K., Lolig, V., & McNamara, P. E. (2024). Assessing gendered impacts of post-harvest technologies in Northern Ghana: gender equity and food security. Gender, Technology and Development, 28(1), 99–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/09718524.2023.2273153 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. SRID-MoFA. (2024). Agriculture in Ghana (Facts & Figures). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Stathers, T., Holcroft, D., Engelbert, M., Ravat, Z., & Marion, P. (2025). The evidence on crop postharvest loss reduction interventions for sub-Saharan African and South Asian food systems: a systematic scoping review update 2024. Journal of Stored Products Research, 114, 102727. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JSPR.2025.102727 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Stathers, T., Holcroft, D., Kitinoja, L., Mvumi, B. M., English, A., Omotilewa, O., Kocher, M., Ault, J., & Torero, M. (2020). A scoping review of interventions for crop postharvest loss reduction in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Nature Sustainability, 3(10), 821–835. https://doi.org/10.1038/S41893-020-00622-1;SUBJMETA [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Sugri, I., Abubakari, M., Owusu, R. K., & Bidzakin, J. K. (2021). Postharvest losses and mitigating technologies: evidence from Upper East Region of Ghana. Sustainable Futures, 3, 100048. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SFTR.2021.100048 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Tibaingana, A., Makombe, G., Kele, T., & Mautjana, H. (2024). 3 - An analysis of costs associated with maize storage facilities used by rural smallholder farmers in Uganda. Africa Development, 49(2), 47–68. https://doi.org/10.57054/AD.V49I2.5713 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Urugo, M. M., Yohannis, E., Teka, T. A., Gemede, H. F., Tola, Y. B., Forsido, S. F., Tessema, A., Suraj, M., & Abdu, J. (2024). Addressing post-harvest losses through agro-processing for sustainable development in Ethiopia. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 18, 101316. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JAFR.2024.101316 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Vercillo, S. (2020). The complicated gendering of farming and household food responsibilities in northern Ghana. Journal of Rural Studies, 79, 235–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JRURSTUD.2020.08.020 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Wahab, I., Hall, O., & Jirström, M. (2022). “The maize is the cost of the farming, and the cassava is our profit”: smallholders’ perceptions and attitudes to poor crop patches in the eastern region of Ghana. Agriculture & Food Security 2022 11:1, 11(1), 14-. https://doi.org/10.1186/S40066-022-00361-W [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. World Bank. (2011). Missing Food; The Case of Postharvest Grain Losses in Sub-Saharan Africa. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/820211468005693818/pdf/649300BRI0ARD0560Box361547B00PUBLIC0.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. World Bank. (2014). Post-harvest loss in sub-Saharan Africa-what do farmers say? Global Food Security, 3(3–4), 149–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2014.10.002 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. Zaato, P. A., Naazie, G. K., Baidoo, J. K., De La Salle Tignegre, J. B., & Sawi, M. (2025). Gender dynamics in smallholder vegetable farmers’ production in Ghana. Discover Sustainability 2025 6:1, 6(1), 766-. https://doi.org/10.1007/S43621-025-01726-4 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Breeding for a Greener Future: Selective Breeding and Crossbreeding Approaches to Minimize Methane Emissions in Ruminant Livestock
• Determinants of Adoption of Post-Harvest Losses Prevention Techniques among Banana/Plantain Marketers in Lagos State, Nigeria
• Enhancing Rice Yield Prediction Using UAV-Based Multispectral Imaging and Machine Learning Algorithms
• Seed-Borne Fungi of Groundnuts (Arachis Hypogaea) and Their Management with Ginger (Zingiber Officinale) Extract In Makurdi, Nigeria
• The Influence of Landforms and Slope on Agricultural Cropping Patterns in Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar District