Structural Gap in Human Rights Protection for Climate-Displaced Persons: A Case Study of Sudan

This paper examines the inadequacy of the structure of international human rights laws and refugee laws in providing protection for climate displaced individuals, with the example of Sudan. Although climate change has been acknowledged as one of the main reasons for human movement around the world, environmental refugees are not protected under the 1951 Refugee Convention and its Protocol of 1967. Protection Gap for Four Categories of Persons Based on Conceptual Approach Using secondary data, the research seeks to identify the gap in the protection of political refugees, war refugees, economic refugees, and environmental refugees. This is especially true with the case of Sudan where climate change pressure combined with prolonged armed conflict and poor governmental capabilities results in complex forms of displacement which do not fit into the current definitions in international law. Based on human security and rights based approaches to the issue informed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), this paper posits that the current legal framework dealing with refugees cannot cope with new mobility trends. Thus, there is a need for an alternative framework which will take into account rights of environmental migrants regardless of their refugee status.

Climate Change, Displacement in Sudan, Human Rights, Legal Frameworks, Refugees

1. Adam, S. A. Y., Mohamed, A., Suleiman, I., Akintunde, D., Dawood, I., & Badri, R. (2025). Between conflict and climate: How drought deepens displacement in war-torn Sudan. International Health, ihaf144. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Adeola, R. (2020). Protecting climate change-induced internally displaced persons in Africa: Relevance of the Kampala Convention. In W. Leal Filho (Ed.), Handbook of climate change resilience (pp. 1–15). Springer. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. African Union. (2009). African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (Kampala Convention). African Union. Adopted 23 October 2009; entered into force 6 December 2012. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Ahmed, A., Mohamed, N. S., Siddig, E. E., Algaily, T., Sulaiman, S., & Ali, Y. (2021). The impacts of climate change on displaced populations: A call for action. Journal of Climate Change and Health, 3, 100057. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Atapattu, S. (2020). Climate change and displacement: Protecting ‘climate refugees’ within a framework of justice and human rights. Journal of Human Rights and the Environment, 11(1), 86–113. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Bahar, D., Brough, R. J., & Peri, G. (2024). Forced migration and refugees: Policies for successful economic and social integration (NBER Working Paper No. 32266). National Bureau of Economic Research. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Ballinger, P. (2025). Historical foundations and limitations of international refugee law. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 21, 285–305. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Barnett, J., & Adger, W. N. (2007). Climate change, human security and violent conflict. Political Geography, 26(6), 639–655. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Bellizzi, S., Popescu, C., Panu Napodano, C. M., Fiamma, M., & Cegolon, L. (2023). Global health, climate change and migration: The need for recognition of ‘climate refugees’. Journal of Global Health, 13, 03011. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Betts, A. (2013). Survival migration: Failed governance and the crisis of displacement. Cornell University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Black, R. (2001). Environmental refugees: Myth or reality? New Issues in Refugee Research, Working Paper No. 34. UNHCR. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27–40. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Byrne, R., & Gammeltoft-Hansen, T. (2020). International refugee law between scholarship and practice. International Journal of Refugee Law, 32(2), 181–199. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Cohen, N., & Arieli, T. (2011). Field research in conflict environments: Methodological challenges and snowball sampling. Journal of Peace Research, 48(4), 423–435. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2024). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Grześkowiak, M. (2024). Empirical consequences of normative inadequacies: The principle of temporary refuge and protection gaps. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 25(2), 573–594. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Hathaway, J. C. (2021). The rights of refugees under international law (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. International Organization for Migration. (2025). DTM Sudan mobility update (22): September monthly report. International Organization for Migration. https://dtm.iom.int/sudan [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. McAdam, J. (2012). Climate change, forced migration, and international law. Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. McAdam, J. (2020). Protecting people displaced by the impacts of climate change: The UN Human Rights Committee and the principle of non-refoulement. American Journal of International Law, 114(4), 708–725. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Momeni Rad, A., & Habibi, M. (2024). The principle of non-refoulement: A customary rule or an emerging peremptory norm in international law. Legal Studies in Digital Age, 3(2), 1–9. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Myers, N. (2002). Environmental refugees: A growing phenomenon of the 21st century. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 357(1420), 609–613. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Nansen Initiative. (2015). Agenda for the protection of cross-border displaced persons in the context of disasters and climate change (Vol. 1). The Nansen Initiative. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2020, January 21). Historic UN Human Rights case opens door to climate change asylum claims [Press release]. OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/01/historic-un-human-rights-case-opens-door-climate-change-asylum-claims [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Platform on Disaster Displacement. (2024). Our response: Cross-border displacement in the context of disasters and climate change. Platform on Disaster Displacement. https://disasterdisplacement.org/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Teitiota v. New Zealand, Communication No. 2728/2016, U.N. Doc. CCPR/C/127/D/2728/2016 (Human Rights Committee, 7 January 2020). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. United Nations. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. United Nations. (1966a). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. United Nations. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. United Nations. (1966b). International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. United Nations. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. United Nations. (2018). Global Compact on Refugees (UN Doc. A/73/12 (Part II)). United Nations. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. United Nations Development Programme. (1994). Human development report 1994. Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. United Nations in Sudan. (2024, October 29). Displacement in Sudan crosses 11 million as devastating crisis reaches new heights: IOM chief. https://sudan.un.org/en/282447 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. UNHCR. (1951/1967). Convention relating to the status of refugees and its 1967 protocol. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. UNHCR. (2023). Global trends: Forced displacement in 2022. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. UNHCR. (2024). Sudan situation: Regional refugee response. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). SAGE Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Conflict of Law in the Safeguarding of Malaysian Intangible Cultural Heritage: A Way Forward
• Alternative Dispute Resolution in India: A Brief Overview Justice Delayed is Justice Denied. - William E. Gladstone
• The Role of Museums in Safeguarding Cultural Heritage Rights: Balancing Access and Repatriation
• An Evaluation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' Significance and Application in Nigeria
• The Role of International Law in Shaping National Immigration Policies.