When Environmental Measures Disagree: Triangulating Biophilic Attributes, Pupil Experience and Academic Performance in Four Ugandan Primary Schools

School-environment studies often treat observed features, pupil experience and educational outcomes as if they measured the same underlying quality. This exploratory multiple-case study examined that assumption across four government-sponsored primary schools in Mukono District, Uganda. Four raters assessed each school using a provisional 52-item presence/absence audit; 302 pupil questionnaires described perceived environment and emotional-social experience; and school records supplied separate mid-term examination summaries. Observed checklist coverage ranged from 38.5% to 78.6%, but audit reproducibility was limited (Fleiss' kappa=.21; average-measures ICC=.43, 95% CI [.16, .64]). The three evidence layers produced contrasting case profiles: School A was broadly convergent-positive, School C combined the lowest audit coverage with the second-strongest grade point, and School D combined the highest coverage with the weakest grade point. With four purposively selected schools, a provisional audit and no pupil-level linkage between surveys and examinations, these patterns may reflect contextual variation, non-equivalent measures and measurement error. They therefore generate, rather than confirm, a three-layer assessment hypothesis: physical availability, lived experience and educational outcomes should be measured separately and interpreted through their convergence before design conclusions are drawn.

biophilic school design; environmental assessment; pupil experience; academic performance

1. Asad, K. W. (2021). Primary and secondary education in Uganda: Challenges and prospects. Interdisciplinary Journal of Education, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.53449/ije.v4i1.152 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015). The impact of classroom design on pupils' learning: Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.02.013 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Chawla, L. (2015). Benefits of nature contact for children. Journal of Planning Literature, 30(4), 433–452. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412215595441 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Feilden Foundation. (2024). East African Schools Design Guide. Feilden Foundation in partnership with Enabel. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Fisher, K. (2024). The biophilic school: A critical synthesis of evidence-based systematic literature reviews. Architecture, 4(3), 457–478. https://doi.org/10.3390/architecture4030025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Marete, J. N. (2025). The impact of biophilic interior design on pupil well-being in Ugandan primary schools: A convergent mixed-methods study. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 9(10), 7961–7967. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.910000653 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Mukono District Local Government. (2019). State of the district report, FY 2018/19. https://mukono.go.ug/publications/state-district-report-fy-1819-chairperson-lcv [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Ngware, M., Hungi, N., Mahuro, G., Mutisya, M., & Abuya, B. (2016). The quality of education in Uganda: A case of Iganga and Mayuge Districts. African Population and Health Research Center. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18273.92004 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Uganda Bureau of Statistics. (2017). National Population and Housing Census 2014: Area specific profile series—Mukono District. Uganda Bureau of Statistics. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Umeora, C. O., Onwuzuligbo, C. C., & Ononuju, F. I. (2025). The role of biophilic campus design in enhancing university environments in southeast Nigeria. Open Journal of Environmental Research, 6(1), 18–27. https://doi.org/10.52417/ojer.v6i1.858 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Marital Adjustment and Its Relationship with Stress, Mental Health, Expectation, and Body Image
• Global and Malaysian Perspectives on Mental Health and Digital Interventions (2020–2025): A Narrative Review
• Burden of Antipsychotic-induced Parkinsonism: A Case Report
• Mental Health in Cameroon: The Challenge of Treating Trauma. Case Study of Treatment Using the EMDR Protocol
• Reliability and Validity Assessment of a Psychological Adaptation Measurement Tool for College Students