Charcoal Production Drives Forest Degradation and Biodiversity Loss in a Miombo Woodland: Insights from Mwekera National Forest Reserve, Zambia

This study evaluated the ecological impacts of charcoal production on forest structure and species composition in the Mwekera National Forest Reserve, a representative miombo woodland in Zambia’s Copperbelt Province. Thirty systematically established plots (20 m × 20 m) were surveyed to assess species richness, diversity, evenness, and structural attributes. A total of 54 woody species were recorded, with a Shannon–Wiener Diversity Index (H') of 3.313 (effective species number = 27.463) and Pielou’s Evenness Index (J') of 0.855, indicating moderate diversity and relatively even species distribution. Despite this, results showed a marked decline in the dominant miombo genera, Brachystegia, Julbernardia, and Isoberlinia, which were selectively harvested for charcoal. In some plots, these species were entirely absent, reflecting intense harvesting pressure. Larger trees, particularly those with greater diameter at breast height (DBH) and height, were disproportionately removed, as indicated by a strong positive DBH–height correlation. Consequently, the residual forest is increasingly dominated by smaller, less valuable trees, leading to simplified structure and reduced biodiversity. The study concludes that unsustainable charcoal production significantly alters miombo composition and weakens ecosystem resilience. It recommends research on soil and faunal impacts, promotion of alternative livelihoods, and strengthening of community-based forest management to curb degradation.

Forest composition, structure, reserve, illegal activities, sustainable.

1. Aron, D., Lee, H. and Merton, A. (2021) 'The role of forests in climate change mitigation', Climate Change Science Journal, 52(4), pp. 124–138. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Borgarello, A. (2016) 'Forests and climate change: Mitigation and adaptation services', Environmental Science and Policy Journal, 44(2), pp. 73–85. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Brown, S. (1997) Estimating biomass and biomass change of tropical forests: a primer. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO Forestry Paper No. 134). Available at: https://www.fao.org/3/w4095e/w4095e00.htm [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Cailteux, J.H., Kampunzu, A.B., Lerouge, C., Kaputo, A. and Milesi, J.P. (2005) 'Genesis of sediment-hosted stratiform copper–cobalt deposits, Central African Copperbelt', Journal of African Earth Sciences, 42(1–5), pp. 134–158. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Central Statistical Office (CSO) (2020) 2020 Census of Population and Housing: Preliminary Report. Lusaka: Government of the Republic of Zambia. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Chave, J., Andalo, C., Brown, S., Cairns, M.A., Chambers, J.Q., Eamus, D., Fölster, H., Fromard, F., Higuchi, N., Kira, T., Lescure, J.P., Nelson, B.W., Ogawa, H., Puig, H., Riera, B. and Yamakura, T. (2005) 'Tree allometry and improved estimation of carbon stocks and balance in tropical forests', Oecologia, 145(1), pp. 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-005-0100-x [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Chidumayo, E.N. (1993) Responses of miombo to harvesting: Ecology and management. Stockholm: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Chidumayo, E.N. (2013) 'Forest degradation and recovery in a miombo woodland landscape in Zambia: 22 years of observations on permanent sample plots', Forest Ecology and Management, 291, pp. 154–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2012.11.033 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Chidumayo, E.N. and Gumbo, D.J. (2010) The dry forests and woodlands of Africa: Managing for products and services. London: Earthscan. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Chilton, P.J. and Foster, S.S.D. (1995) 'Hydrogeological characterisation and water supply potential of basement aquifers in tropical Africa', Hydrogeology Journal, 3(1), pp. 36–49. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Chomba, C. (2018) 'Does the cutting of miombo tree species for charcoal production directly cause deforestation? A case study of Kapiri Mposhi area, Central Zambia', Global Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Health Science, 7(1), pp. 45–65. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. CIFOR (Centre for International Forestry Research) (2014) Monitoring and reporting on forest resources in Zambia: A case study. Bogor: CIFOR. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Climate-Data.org (2021) Climate: Copperbelt – Climate graph, temperature graph, Climate table for Copperbelt. Available at: https://en.climate-data.org/africa/zambia/copperbelt-1937/ [Accessed 29 July 2025]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Colwell, R.K. (2009) 'Biodiversity: concepts, patterns, and measurement', in Levin, S.A. (ed.) The Princeton guide to ecology. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 257–263. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Dewees, P.A., Campbell, B.M., Katerere, Y., Sitoe, A., Cunningham, A.B., Angelsen, A. and Wunder, S. (2011) Managing the miombo woodlands of southern Africa: policies, incentives and options for the rural poor. Washington, DC: Program on Forests (PROFOR), The World Bank. Available at: https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/122231468299679738/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (2017) The charcoal transition: Greening the charcoal value chain to mitigate climate change and improve local livelihoods. Rome. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (2020) Global forest resources assessment 2020: Zambia country report. Rome: FAO. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2021) Forest futures: Sustainable pathways for forests, landscapes and people in the Asia-Pacific region. Bangkok: FAO. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Frost, P.G.H. (1996) 'The ecology of miombo woodlands', in Campbell, B. (ed.) The Miombo in transition: woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor: CIFOR, pp. 11–57. Available at: https://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/miombo.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Giesecke, J. (2012) Causes of deforestation in Zambia and impacts on national forest reserves. Washington, DC: USAID. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Global Historical Weather and Climate Data (2022) Historical Weather Data for Zambia. Available at: https://www.worldweatheronline.com/ [Accessed 29 July 2025]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Government of the Republic of Zambia (GRZ) (2019b) Seventh National Development Plan (7NDP) 2017–2021: Mid-Term Review Report. Lusaka: Ministry of National Development Planning. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. International Energy Agency (IEA) (2022) Africa Energy Outlook 2022. Paris: IEA. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/africa-energy-outlook-2022 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Jury, M.R. (2019) Climate trends and scenarios for southern Africa. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23033-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Kalaba, F.K., Quinn, C.H. and Dougill, A.J. (2010) 'Contribution of forest provisioning ecosystem services to rural livelihoods in the Miombo woodlands of Zambia', Population and Environment, 31(5), pp. 386–409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-010-0103-0 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Kalaba, F.K., Quinn, C.H. and Dougill, A.J. (2013) 'The role of forest provisioning ecosystem services in coping with household stresses and shocks in rural Africa', Ecosystem Services, 5, pp. 143–152. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Kampunzu, A.B., Cailteux, J.H. and Moine, B. (2000) 'Sediment-hosted Zn–Pb–Cu deposits in the Central African Copperbelt', Journal of African Earth Sciences, 30(3), pp. 897–917. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Kanja, K., Mweemba, M. and Siwale, W. (2017) 'Time series analysis of encroachment in Mwekera Forest Reserve using remote sensing and GIS', The International Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Research, pp. 3–8. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Luoga, E.J., Witkowski, E.T.F. and Balkwill, K. (2000) 'Economics of charcoal production in miombo woodlands of eastern Tanzania: some hidden costs associated with commercialization of the resources', Ecological Economics, 35(2), pp. 243–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(00)00196-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. MacDonald, A.M., Davies, J. and Dochartaigh, B.E.O. (2005) Developing groundwater: A guide for rural water supply. Nottingham: British Geological Survey. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Magurran, A.E. (2004) Measuring biological diversity. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Malhi, Y., Phillips, O.L., Lloyd, J., Baker, T., Wright, J., Almeida, S., Arroyo, L., Frederiksen, T., Grace, J., Higuchi, N., Laurance, W.F., Leañ o, C., Lewis, S.L., Meir, P., Monteagudo, A., Neill, D., Vargas, P.N., Silva, J., Terborgh, J., Vásquez, R. and Vinceti, B. (2004) 'Spatial patterns and regional gradients in surface temperature and productivity in Amazonian forests', Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 109(D2). https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JD003545 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Malimbwi, R.E., Zahabu, E. and Kajembe, G.C. (2005) Charcoal potential of miombo woodlands at Kitulangalo, Tanzania. Morogoro: Tanzania Forestry Research Institute (TAFORI). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Mensah, P. (2021) 'Charcoal production and its ecological consequences in Sub-Saharan Africa', Environmental Conservation Journal, 25(4), pp. 212–220. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Moll, E. (2011) What’s that tree? Cape Town: Struik Nature Publishers. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Moore, P.D., Chapman, S.B. and Sims, R.W. (1996) Methods in plant ecology. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Science. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Moutsambote, J.-M., Koubouana, F. and Yoka, J. (2016) 'Tree species diversity, richness, and similarity in intact and degraded forest in the tropical rainforest of the Congo Basin: Case of the Forest of Likouala in the Republic of Congo', Hindawi. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Mwampamba, T.H., Ghilardi, A., Sander, K. and Chaix, K.J. (2013) 'Dispelling common misconceptions to improve attitudes and policy outlook on charcoal in developing countries', Energy for Sustainable Development, 17(2), pp. 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2012.11.001 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Palgrave, K.C. (2002) Trees of southern Africa. Revised ed. Cape Town: Struik Publishers. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Phillips, O.L., Hall, P., Gentry, A.H., Sawyer, S.A. and Vásquez, R. (2002) 'Dynamics and species richness of tropical rain forests', Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 91(7), pp. 2805–2809. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.91.7.2805 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Porter GeoConsultancy (2020) Zambia Copperbelt geology overview. Available at: https://www.portergeo.com.au [Accessed 4 July 2025]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Storrs, A.E.G. (1995) Know your trees: some of the common trees found in Zambia. Lusaka: Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Syampungani, S., Chirwa, P.W., Akinnifesi, F.K. and Sileshi, G. (2010) 'The potential of using agroforestry as a win–win solution to climate change mitigation and adaptation and meeting food security challenges in Southern Africa', Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 136(1–2), pp. 113–127. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Syampungani, S., Chirwa, P.W., Akinnifesi, F.K. and Sileshi, G. (2016) 'Miombo woodland recovery and management: Advances in ecology, silviculture and governance', Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 25(4), pp. 285–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2016.1222251 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Taylor, R.G. and Howard, K.W.F. (1999) 'The influence of geology on the occurrence of groundwater in southern Africa', Journal of Hydrology, 214(1–4), pp. 47–62. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Taylor, R.G. and Howard, K.W.F. (2000) 'A tectono-geomorphic model of the hydrogeology of deeply weathered crystalline rock: Evidence from Uganda', Hydrogeology Journal, 8(3), pp. 279–294. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Timberlake, J. and Chidumayo, E.N. (2011) Miombo ecoregion vision report. WWF-SARPO Occasional Paper Series 15. Harare: World Wide Fund for Nature. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. United Nations (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. A/RES/70/1. New York: United Nations. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2019) Zambia: Sustainable charcoal value chains. Lusaka: UNDP Zambia. Available at: https://www.undp.org/zambia/publications/sustainable-charcoal-value-chains [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Von der Heyden, C.J. and New, M.G. (2004) 'Groundwater pollution on the Zambian Copperbelt: Deciphering the origins and possible links with mining', Water SA, 30(2), pp. 121–126. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. White, F. (1983) The Vegetation of Africa: A Descriptive Memoir to Accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO Vegetation Map of Africa. Paris: UNESCO. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. World Bank (2018) Forest Landscape Programme for Zambia: Addressing deforestation and promoting sustainable land management. Lusaka: World Bank. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) (2021) State of the Environment Report for Zambia 2020–2021. Lusaka: ZEMA. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Zambia Meteorological Department (2022) Annual Climate Summary Report for 2021/2022 Season. Lusaka: Ministry of Green Economy and Environment. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Zulu, L.C. and Richardson, R.B. (2013) 'Charcoal, livelihoods, and poverty reduction: Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa', Energy for Sustainable Development, 17(2), pp. 127–137. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2012.07.007 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Breeding for a Greener Future: Selective Breeding and Crossbreeding Approaches to Minimize Methane Emissions in Ruminant Livestock
• Determinants of Adoption of Post-Harvest Losses Prevention Techniques among Banana/Plantain Marketers in Lagos State, Nigeria
• Enhancing Rice Yield Prediction Using UAV-Based Multispectral Imaging and Machine Learning Algorithms
• Seed-Borne Fungi of Groundnuts (Arachis Hypogaea) and Their Management with Ginger (Zingiber Officinale) Extract In Makurdi, Nigeria
• The Influence of Landforms and Slope on Agricultural Cropping Patterns in Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar District