Necessary but not Sufficient: Rural Road Rehabilitation, Agricultural Productivity and Climate Risk in Zambia’s Breadbasket Districts

Rural roads are frequently promoted as a tool for increasing smallholder agricultural productivity, yet evidence from real-world, climate-stressed contexts remains mixed. This paper examines how rural road rehabilitation under the Zambia Improved Rural Connectivity Project has affected agricultural productivity and resilience among small-scale farmers in Nyimba and Chibombo districts. Using a concurrent mixed-methods design, the study combines survey data from 372 households, stratified by district and distance from rehabilitated roads, with qualitative interviews, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. The analysis focuses on land ownership and activation, cropping patterns and yields for maize, sunflower, soya beans and groundnuts over two recent agricultural seasons, including the climatically adverse 2023/24 season. Results show that land ownership is widespread in both districts and that improved roads have supported land activation and crop diversification, particularly in previously more peripheral parts of Nyimba. Maize cultivation remains entrenched, but participation in commercial oilseed and legume crops has expanded or been sustained along rehabilitated corridors. However, yield outcomes are highly volatile: maize and soya yields contracted sharply in 2023/24 season, particularly in Chibombo, despite improved physical access to depots and markets, and sunflower and groundnut yields are uneven across distance bands and local agro-ecologies. Interpreted through the Spatial Development Theory and the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, the findings support a “necessary but not sufficient” interpretation: Improved Rural Connectivity Project roads raise the ceiling of feasible productivity and help farmers stay engaged in key value chains, but realised productivity gains depend critically on climate, agronomy, liquidity and local market and service ecosystems. Policy implications emphasise integrating rural road investments with climate-smart agriculture, timely input systems and rural finance.

Rural roads; Agricultural productivity; Climate risk; Small-scale farmers; Zambia.

1. Ako, T. & Wanie, C. (2022). Rural-Urban Road Transportation Challenges on Food Security in Maroua, Far North Region of Cameroon. Current Urban Studies, 10, 697-717. doi: 10.4236/cus.2022.104041. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Bucheli, J. R., Bohara, A. K., & Villa, K. (2018). Paths to Development? Rural Roads and Multidimensional Poverty in the Hills and Plains of Nepal. Journal of International Development, 30 (3), 430-456. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Burke, W. J., Jayne, T. S., & Sitko, N. J. (2020). Do Medium-scale Farms Improve Market Access Conditions for Zambian Small-scale Farmers? Journal of Agricultural Economics, 71(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-9552.12360 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Chen, L., Lu, Y., & Nanayakkara, A. (2023). Rural Road Connectivity and Local Economic Activity: Evidence from Sri Lanka’s Iroad Program. Transport Policy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2023.09.022 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Cheng, W., Shao, J., Liu, C., & Song, W. (2025). The Impact of Highway Construction on the Profits of Agricultural Enterprises: Evidence from China. Agricultural Economics. . https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.70037 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Dumas, C., & Játiva, X. (2024). Better Roads, Better Off? Evidence on Upgrading Roads in Tanzania. The [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. World Bank Economic Review, Volume 39, Issue 1, Pages 104–123, https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhae017 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Ellis, F. (2000). Rural livelihoods and diversity in developing countries. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Ewnetu, A. (2023). The Effect of Rural Road Access on Rural Households Livelihood Improvement: Evidence from Selected Weredas in Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia. Journal of African Development Studies, 10 (1), 47-63. https://doi.org/10.56302/jads.v10i1.8780 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Gebresilasse, M. (2023). Rural Roads, Agricultural Extension, and Productivity. Journal of Development Economics, 161, Article 103008. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304387823000032 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Iimi, A. (2020). Performance-Based Road Contracts in Zambia. Review of Industrial Organization, 57(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11151-019-09714-5 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Isah, I., & Ibrahim, A. A. (2024). Influence of Rural Road Transportation on Farming Activities in Baruten Local Government Area, Kwara State, Nigeria. https://doi.org/10.35629/5252-0610441451 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Kamaludin, A. S., & Qibthiyyah, R. M. (2022). Village Road Quality and Accessibility on Transforming Rural Development. Agraris, 8(2). https://doi.org/10.18196/agraris.v8i2.13618 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Krugman, P. (1991). Increasing Returns and Economic Geography. Journal of Political Economy, 99(3), 483–499. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Kumar, S., llirjani, E., & Ukil, P. (2025). On the Road to a Better Life? Rural Road and Economic Development in Albania. European Journal of Development Research. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287025-00720-w [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Kundu, S., Kabir, M. E., Morgan, E. A., Davey, P., & Hossain, M., (2020). Building Coastal Agricultural Resilience in Bangladesh: A Systematic Review of Progress, Gaps and Implications. Climate, 8(9), 98. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8090098 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Kwame, A. M., Dogbey, E., Arimeyaw W. A., & Owusu, A. F. S. (2019). Effect of Road Transport Accessibility on Agricultural Produce Marketing and Livelihoods of Farmers in the Kasena-Nankana West District of Ghana. The Journal of Development Practice, Volume 5 (Annual), 2019, ISSN: 2394-0476 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Nakamura, S., Bundervoet, T., & Nuru, M. (2019). Rural Roads, Poverty and Resilience: Evidence from Ethiopia. In Rural Roads, Poverty and Resilience: Evidence from Ethiopia. https://doi.org/10.1596/18139450-8800 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Natarajan, N., Newsham. A., Rigg J., & Suhardiman, D. (2024). Sustainable Livelihoods Framework for the 21st Century. World Development. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105898 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Njenga, M., & Opiyo, R. (2021). Feeder Roads and Market Integration in Kenya’s Agricultural Corridors. East African Journal of Development Studies, 8(3), pp.212–228. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Olagunju, O., & Akinbile, L.A. (2020). Farmers’ perceptions of the Effect of Rural Transportation Systems on Farming Income in Ondo State, Nigeria. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 36(3): 985-994. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Pillay, M. R. (2023). The Impact of Road Infrastructure on Rural Development in South Africa. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 6(7), 566-574. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v6i7.1539 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Scoones, I. (1998). Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: A Framework for Analysis. IDS Working Paper 72. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Sitko, N. J., & Jayne, T. S. (2014). Structural Transformation or Elite Land Capture? The Growth of “Emergent” Farmers in Zambia. Food Policy, 48, 194–202. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Takada, S., Morikawa, S., Idei, R., & Kato, H. (2021). Impacts of Improvements in Rural Roads on Household Income through the Enhancement of Market Accessibility in Rural Areas of Cambodia. Transportation, 48(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-020-10150-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Tamene, L. & Megento, T. (2019). Transport Infrastructure and Small-scale Market Access: Evidence from Ethiopia. African Journal of Rural Development, 6(1), 34–49. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Tembo, S., & Chapoto, A. (2019). Constraints to Agricultural Technology Adoption in Zambia. Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute (IAPRI) Working Paper No. 136. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. World Bank, (2020). Improved Rural Connectivity Project (IRCP) Zambia: Project Appraisal Document. Washington, DC: World Bank. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Breeding for a Greener Future: Selective Breeding and Crossbreeding Approaches to Minimize Methane Emissions in Ruminant Livestock
• Determinants of Adoption of Post-Harvest Losses Prevention Techniques among Banana/Plantain Marketers in Lagos State, Nigeria
• Enhancing Rice Yield Prediction Using UAV-Based Multispectral Imaging and Machine Learning Algorithms
• Seed-Borne Fungi of Groundnuts (Arachis Hypogaea) and Their Management with Ginger (Zingiber Officinale) Extract In Makurdi, Nigeria
• The Influence of Landforms and Slope on Agricultural Cropping Patterns in Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar District