Apprenticeship Practices and Poverty Reduction in Nnewi, Anambra State, Nigeria

Apprenticeship Practices and Poverty Reduction in Nnewi, Anambra State, Nigeria

Onyema, Chiemeka PhD and Iwu, Uchenna Okechukwu

Department of Sociology, Imo State University, Owerri

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2023.10809

Received: 26 May 2023; Revised: 22 July 2023; Accepted: 27 July 2023; Published: 06 September 2023

ABSTRACT

This work focused on apprenticeship practices and sustainable development in Nnewi. The specific objectives are: To ascertain the effect of apprenticeship practices on poverty reduction in Nnewi and to examine whether apprenticeship practices has led to youth development in Nnewi. To satisfy the objectives of the study, two research hypotheses were formulated. Relevant literature were reviewed. The researchers adopted the social learning theory of Ivan Bandura.  The researchers adopted the survey research design. Simple random technique was adopted,323 respondents were purposely selected as the study sample Data were collected through primary and secondary methods. Data were presented using simple percentages and table, while the hypotheses were tested using the X² statistical tool. The study found that: Apprenticeship practices has led to poverty reduction in Nnewi. Based on the findings, the researchers recommended that apprenticeship practices should be included in Nigeria’s educational curriculum to prepare students for life after school graduation.

Keywords: Apprenticeship, Poverty, Poverty reduction, Entrepreneurship, Youth development.

INTRODUCTION

Apprenticeship can be defined as the arrangement in which someone learns an art, trade or job under a professional in that field. There are three forms of apprenticeship, namely; ‘Traditional, informal and formal’. The formal apprenticeship practice is more beneficial to the reduction of poverty, hence there are laws guiding it and it is well structured. Apprenticeships can also enable practitioners to gain a license to practice in a regulated occupation. Apprenticeship lengths vary significantly across sectors, professions, roles and cultures. Apprenticeship still remains the vehicle for skills training. There are different enterprises that engage in apprenticeship practices, which include; wielding, mechanics, auto-mechanics, auto-electricians, tailoring, generator repairing, mobile phone repairing, carpentry, furniture making, catering, make-up artistry, manicure/pedicure, and plumbing. These trades are recognized as a means of absorbing and training unemployed youths through manpower development and economic empowerment (Ayo, 2021). The Nigerian economic environment is, yearning for entrepreneurs who would through apprenticeship practices exhibit creative and innovative abilities laced with the willingness to create enterprises that the unemployed will be willing to offer their services since, the demand for white collar jobs has increased more than the possible available job opportunities (NBS, 2012) and this has created unexpected unemployment and hence, poverty. This resulted to the adoption of the economic reform program in Nigeria, (Structural Adjustment Program; SAP) in 1986, which brought about a decisive shift of emphasis from the magnificent, capital intensive, large-scale enterprises to SMEs with apprenticeship training as a means of transferring skills and knowledge to vulnerable younger generation (Chigunta, 2018). Apprenticeship training is the basis for successful entrepreneurship which could lead to poverty reduction: entrepreneurship is the application of skills and knowledge. Apprenticeship therefore is the preparation to meet opportunity. World Bank (2009) notes that lack of necessary skills is often cited as contributing to high unemployment. Job training programs, and in particular apprenticeship training with private-sector informal firms, could expand the Nigeria labour market opportunities for young people by providing them with relevant on-the-job experience and market-ready skills.

Research questions

• To what extent has apprenticeship practices led to socioeconomic development in Nnewi?
• To what extent has apprenticeship practices led to poverty reduction in Nnewi?
• To what extent has apprenticeship practices led to youth development in Nnewi?
• To ascertain the effect of apprenticeship practices on poverty reduction in Nnewi.
• To examine whether apprenticeship practices has led to youth development in Nnewi.

Hypotheses

• There is a significant relationship between apprenticeship practices and poverty reduction in Nnewi.
• There is a significant relationship between apprenticeship practices and youth development in Nnewi.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Apprenticeship practice

According Hamilton (2016) apprenticeship is the process of involving someone under the guidance and teaching of an expert, in order to best learn an art, skill, or trade through practical experience. This is known as the traditional business-learning school (Olarewaju, 2017). ILO (2012) defines apprenticeship as a period when an apprentice learns the techniques, terminologies and strategies as well as tools and equipment used for a particular business. Traditional apprenticeship refers to well-organized transfer of skills within families and social groups based on socio-cultural conventions. Apprenticeship involves the exchange of labour and sometimes money for training given on the job.

Apprenticeship training is a period of gathering all the necessary skills, knowledge and techniques of a particular job that will help one to be established and get involved in the creation of wealth. Apprenticeship practices during the colonial age involved mostly males while the female children were usually trained in the kitchen on how to cook by their mother, recently, women also engage in apprenticeship in whatever vocation they desire. Apprentices are normally between the ages of 8 and 12, and the practice lasts for 5 to 10 years. Some apprentices normally possess primary education, before undertaking their industrial venture. The final apprenticeship contract between the master and apprentice’s family is normally preceded by a trial or probationary period of about three months; a period during which the apprentices’ suitability for the job or other role is being tested. The terms and conditions of business apprenticeship of a ward that leaves with the master/mistress usually include stating in the contract terms the number of expected years of stewardship and the master is obligated to settle the servant who might have helped him both in the business and at domestic work. Apprenticeship practices are classified into three: traditional apprenticeship, informal apprenticeship and modern apprenticeship (ILO, 2008).

Traditional apprenticeship normally involves transferring of skills within the family members or relations. It is based on socio-cultural contracts. Culture has a great role here. The informal apprenticeship is similar to traditional apprenticeship training but involves non relations also (Ajayi, 2017).

Informal apprenticeship training is common in the more “modern” informal activities of craftspeople that shifted their focus from productive activities to training as their main activity. “Modern Apprenticeship’ is taken to denote training program that combines vocational education with work based learning for an intermediate occupational skill that is subject to externally imposed training standards, particularly for their workplace component. It has procedures and regulations of accepting and settling an apprentice. It stipulates more clearly the length of the training period, the training format, the number of working/training hours, the payment of minimum wage, and the apprentices need not leave with the master/mistress.

Presently in Nigeria, this is becoming more rampant especially in the vocational jobs. Most apprentices here combine apprentices training with their education. The modern apprenticeship is more organized and covers areas such as agricultural equipment technician, appliance service technician, automotive painter, automotive service technician, baker, boilermaker, bricklayer, cabinet maker, carpenter concrete finisher, construction electrician, cook, electric motor system technician, electronics technician(consumer products), floor covering installer, glazier, hairstylist,make-up artistry, heavy duty equipment technician, industrial electrician, industrial instrument mechanic, industrial mechanic (millwright), insulator (heat and frost), ironworker (generalist), lather (interior systems mechanic), machinist, metal fabricator (fitter), mobile crane operator, motor vehicle body repairer (metal and paint), motorcycle mechanic, oil burner mechanic, painter and decorator, plumber, power line technician, truck and transport mechanic and welder.

One can be an apprentice of vocational skill without living with his/her master/mistress; and most mentors do charge money for mentorship in the modern apprenticeship, moreover, an apprentice of vocational skill does not requirethe master to settle the apprentice unless it was agreed from the beginning. There are four major ways of transferring traditional apprenticeship skills: modeling, scaffolding, fading, and coaching, (Collins, Brown, and Newman 1989). Modeling entails the apprentice learning by watching the master/mistress demonstrating how to do different parts of the task although, Lave and Wenger (2017) argued that in traditional apprenticeship, much of the learning occurs as apprentices watch others at work. Scaffolding involves apprentice engaging in a task with a great support or directive of the master/mistress in other to complete the job. The master/mistress gradually instructs the apprentice on the procedures of the job while inspecting the work. Hargreaves (2020) has argued that the model of apprenticeship stress on mentoring and coaching could help schools rethink the teacher-student relationship. Cognitive apprenticeship is a theory of the process where a master of a skill teaches that skill to an apprentice. In fading, the master/mistress gradually withdraws the strong support expecting the apprentice to handle the work and more of such responsibility. Coaching runs through the entire apprenticeship experience, it starts from the beginning of apprenticeship till the apprentice is free. It involves all the processes from novice to expert in a specific occupational field. It is the overall essence of apprenticeship. Achugo and Chigbo (2019) notes that it involves the master/mistress choosing tasks, providing hints and scaffolding, evaluating the activities of apprentices and diagnosing the kinds of problems they are having, challenging them and offering encouragement, giving feedback, structuring the ways to do things, working on particular weaknesses. A young apprentice learns by way of observation and imitation from an experienced master, acquires the skills of the trade and is inducted into the culture and networks of the business. The Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) and ILO (2014) comments on equipping youths with the necessary skills needed in the labour market through quality apprenticeships which can serve as an effective way of improving employment opportunities for youths. To acquire this basic skills and knowledge, classroom learning has been supported with internship coaching for all disciplines. Knowledge is no longer based on

class room anymore hence; researchers establish that graduates with classroom certificate have thirty (30) percent opportunity of being employed in the formal sector while graduates with classroom and thorough formal apprenticeship certificates have fifty-three (53) percent opportunity of formal sector employment (Fares and Puerto, 2009) in (ILO (2011).

Poverty Reduction

Poverty reduction on the other hand is a phrase that encourages economic growth that will permanently raise as many people as possible over a poverty line. World Bank (1990) defined poverty as the inability of individual or section of a society to attain a specified minimum standard of living. Poverty is the state of human beings living with little or no material means of surviving: little or no food, poor access to clean water and sanitation, poor access to energy, shelter, clothes, healthcare, education, security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one’s life and other physical means of living that improves one’s life (Elumilade, Asaoluand Adereti, 2019). Poverty is the state of human beings living with little or no material means of surviving: little or no food, water shelter, energy, clothes, healthcare, education, and other physical means of living that improves one’s life (Elumilade, Asaolu and Adereti, 2019).

Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions; low incomes and the inability toacquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity (Oseni and Ehikioya, 2017).

Poverty also encompasses low levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, poor access to energy, inadequate physical and food security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one’s life.

Poverty may be due to national, sector-specific, community, household or individual characteristics. Other important regional and national characteristics that affect poverty include good governance, a sound environmental policy, economic, political and market stability, mass participation, global and regional security, intellectual expression and a fair, functional, and effective judiciary. Changes in income are the most common but not the only way of measuring poverty over time.

This basic fact means that the level of employment, the quality of jobs, and the access which the poor have to decent earnings opportunities will be crucial determinants of poverty reduction. The intuition that jobs matter for development has not been lost on the governments of low income countries and the vast majority of national development strategies look to employment generation as a major channel for poverty reduction.

Apprenticeship practices and youth development

Majekodunmi (2019) sees apprenticeship as a cost-effective training program that combines serious work-based learning and classroom instruction at very modest
cost to government. For him, apprentices are employees, so they earn while they learn with close guidance by mentors. He further stated that youth who have trouble entering and staying in the labor force, apprenticeships provide an incentive to work hard learning skills that lead to careers that pay well. According to Kazeem (2019), when young people can secure good-paying jobs, they are more apt to marry and live with their children. He conducted a survey, which shows that nearly all employers believed that apprenticeships help them meet their skill demands and 3 in 4 reported improved productivity. Today’s young people face high underemployment and unemployment that jeopardizes their long-term success in work and family life (Ndu, 2020). For him, declining job prospects go hand-in-hand with the rise in unmarried parenthood among high school graduates with little or no college education. He further opined that, today’s youth are exposed to less vocational education, and employers increasingly are complaining about the mismatch between the skills they need and those youth possess. For Akpan (2019), when robust apprenticeship systems are in place, youth learn employability skills for rewarding careers, youth unemployment is kept low, the state’s productivity is kept high, and employers are ensured a workforce with strong technical and employability skills.

Types of apprenticeship

Apprenticeships can be divided into two main categories: Independent and Cooperative.

Independent apprenticeships are those organized and managed by employers, without any involvement from educational institutions. They happen dissociated from any educational curricula, which means that, usually, the apprentices are not involved in any educational programme at the same time but, even if they are, there is no relation between the undergoing studies and the apprenticeship.

Cooperative apprenticeships are those organized and managed in cooperation between educational institutions and employers. They vary in terms of governance, some being more employer lead and others more educational institution lead, but they are always associated with a curriculum and are designed as a mean for students to put theory in practice and master knowledge in a way that empowers them with professional autonomy. Their main characteristics could be summarized into the following:

Theoretical Framework

Social learning theory is a general theory of human behavior. Bandura (1963) theorizes that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context. According to the theory, three ways in which apprentices learn are purely through observation or direct instruction or through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. Scaffolding, modeling, mentoring, and coaching are all methods of teaching and learning that draw on social constructivist learning theory. Bandura (SLT) shows that children naturally imitate the behavior of their modeling without needing or receiving a direct reward for the new behaviour. Bandura’s major premise is that a servant can learn by observing his/her masters/mistress who serves as a model. He claims that modeling can have as much impact as direct experience. Bandura (1997) posits that in order for modeling to be successful, the learner must be attentive, must have access to and retain the information presented, must be motivated to learn, and must be able to accurately reproduce the desired skill. Social Learning Theory has several assumptions and principles:

• Humans are social beings who learn by observing the behaviour of others and the outcomes (reinforcements and punishments) associated with that behaviour.
• Observed behaviours which are rewarded will be repeated (imitation)
• The person whose behaviour is being imitated is called the role model and the process of imitation is called modelling.
• Learning can sometimes occur without a change in behaviour. This behaviour may occur at a later time, or may never occur.
• Cognitive processes play an important role in learning. Some of these cognitive processes include attention, memory, rehearsal, motivation and expectations of reinforcement or punishment.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This work focused on Apprenticeship Practices and Sustainable Development in Nnewi, Anambra State.

The research design for this work is the survey research design. Survey research design means the investigation of the opinion, behaviour or other manifestations of a group by questioning them.  The researcher adopted the survey research design because of its flexibility to permit the use of a variety of data collection techniques. Also, survey research design sensitizes the researchers to potential problems that were originally unknown.

Nnewi is a commercial and industrial city in Anambra State, southeastern Nigeria.^[4] It is the second largest and second most populous city in the southern part of the country.^[5]Nnewi as a metropolis has one local government area, which is Nnewi North.^[6]Nnewi North comprises four quarters: Otolo, Uruagu, Umudim, and Nnewichi. The first indigenous car manufacturing plant in Nigeria is located in the city while the first wholly Made-in-Nigeria motorcycle, the ‘NASENI M1’ was manufactured in Nnewi.

As of 2006,Nnewi has an estimated population of 391,227 according to the Nigerian census. The 2019 population estimate shows that Nnewi has a population of over 900,000. The city spans over 200 square miles (520 km²) in Anambra State. Nnewi Metropolitan Area and its satellite towns is home to nearly 2.5 million residents As of 2005. Dimensionally, Nnewi has an edge over all other units, it was recognized by the 1953 census figures as the largest inland town of all others in the Eastern states of Nigeria.

Projected to be the twelfth fastest growing city on the African continent between 2020 and 2025, with a 5.18% growth.

The population of this study is the population of Nnewi which is 491,227 (projected population 2021). The researcher purposively chose a sample of 325 respondents. The respondents were selected from the communities in Nnewi. Out of 325 copies of the research questionnaire that were distributed, only 323 copies were returned. Therefore, the study sample is 323.

The researcher adopted the simple random sampling technique. In using the simple random sampling technique, the researcher adopted the hat-and-draw method, in using this method, the researcher wrote out the names of the communities in Nnewi in pieces of paper, folded them, dropped them in a container, shuffles them, and picked blindfoldedly, the first five communities that made up the sample.    

The researcher used both the primary and secondary sources of data collection techniques.

Primary sources: Primary data source is firsthand information. Information from the primary source that aided this research was collected by means of structured questionnaire administered by the researcher to the respondents and interview conducted in various communities. The questionnaire was administered to the selected respondents in Nnewi. Permission and confidentiality of their responses were guaranteed.  The questionnaire were made up of two sections. Section A and B. section A consist of demographic data of the respondents, while section B consist of closed ended questions, and the respondents were required to tick “SA” for strongly agree, “A” for agree, “SD” for strongly disagree, and “D” for disagree and open ended questions where the respondents were expected to express their views on the subject matter.

Secondary Sources: the secondary sources of data that aided the possibility of this research were; journals, articles, and text books.

Data were presented using simple percentages and tables, while the hypotheses were tested using the chi-square statistical tool. This is because Chi-square enhances calculation and comprehension. It also gives the opportunity to establish relationship between variables.

Formular for Chi-square

∑ (O – E)

       E

O   =          Observed frequency

E   =          Expected frequency

∑  =          Summing over the cells.

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS/ INTERPRETATIONS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Data Presentation

Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents

Table1: Sex Distribution of the Respondents

Sex	No of Respondents	% of Respondents
Male	198	61.3
Female	125	38.7
Total	323	100

The table above shows that the male folks were represented with 61.3 percent, while the female folks were represented with 38.7 percent.

Table : 2 Age Distribution of the Respondents

Age	No of Respondents	% of Respondents
15 -20	88	27.2
21-26	71	22
27-32	64	19.8
33-38	61	18.9
39and above	39	12.1
Total	323	100

The table above shows that students within the ages of 15-20 were represented with 27.2 percent, 21-26 years were represented with 22 percent, 27-32 years were represented with 19.8, 33-38 years were represented with 18.9 percent, while 39 and above were represented with 12.1 percent.

Table 3 Marital Status of the Respondents

Status	No of respondents	Percentage
Single	301	93.2
Married	21	6.50
Divorced	1	0.3
Total	323	100

The above table shows that singles were represented with 93.2 percent, married were represented with 6.50 percent, while divorcees were represented with 0.3 percent.

Table 4  Academic qualification

qualification	No of Respondents	Percentage
O’level	56	0.3
OND	91	12.4
BSC/B.A/HND	83	23.8
MASTERS/PHD	93	58.5
Total	323	100

The table above shows that those with O’level are represented with 0.3 percent, OND were represented with 12.4 percent, B.Sc/B.A/HND were represented with 23.8 percent while those with masters and PhD were represented with 58.5 percent.

Table 5  Apprenticeship Practices and Poverty Reduction

	Items	SA	A	D		SD	Total sample		%
5	Apprenticeship practices has not helped to enrich the youths of Nnewi	16 (4.9)	18 (5.6)		154 (47.7)	169 (52.3)		323	100
6	The youths of Nnewi are more involved in apprenticeship practices	15 (4.6)	19 5.9	152 47.0		171 52.9	323		100
7	People see apprenticeship as a way out of poverty	20 6.2	14 4.3	158 48.9		165 51.1	323		100
8	Apprenticeship practices is seen as a way to enrich young people mentally and otherwise	185 57.3	110 34.0	7 2.2		21 6.5	323		100
9	Apprenticeship practices has contributed in enriching the youths of Nnewi.	111 34.4	184 57	3 0.9		25 7.7	323		100

Item 8 of the table above shows that apprenticeship practices helps in improving the youths both mentally and socioeconomically as 57.3 percent of the respondents agreed to the question item.

Table 6 Apprenticeship practices and youth development

	Items	SA	A	D	SD	Total sample	%
10	Apprenticeship practices has not led to youth development	17 (5.3)	17 (5.3)	153 (47.3)	170 (52.6)	323	100
11	Youths in Nnewi do not value apprenticeship practices.	19 (5.9)	15 4.6	152 47.0	171 52.9	323	100
12	The boss of this apprentice usually scare them away with difficult tasks.	20 6.2	14 4.3	158 48.9	165 51.1	323	100
13	Apprenticeship practices have led to youth development	110 34.0	185 57.3	7 2.2	21(6.5)	323	100

Item 13 in the table above shows that apprenticeship practices has led to youth development as 110 of the respondents agreed to the question item.

Testing of Hypotheses

Testing of hypothesis one

Hypothesis one states that; there is a significant relationship between apprenticeship practices and poverty reduction. To test this hypothesis, the responses of the respondents in item 1, 3 and 4 as represented in table 4.6 were used.

Table 7 Chi-Square Analysis for apprenticeship practices and poverty reduction

Items	SA	A	D	SD	Total
1	16	18	169	154	323B1
3	20	14	165	158	323B2
4	185	110	21	7	323B3
Total	221A1	142A2	355A3	319A4	969

Computing formular for chi-square

X² = ∑(O₁ – E₁)²

            E₁

Where ∑ = Summation

                        O = Observed values

                        E = Expected values

Placing the observed and expected values in a tabular form, we have;

Table : 8 Data for hypothesis one

O	E	(O – E)	(O – E)2/E
221	73.7	147.7	0.2
142	47.3	94.7	1.4
355	118.3	33	0.5
319	106.3	212.7	0.4
221	73.7	147.3	0.2
142	47.3	68.3	1.4
355	118.3	33	1.5
319	106.3	33	0.4
221	77.3	9	0.6
142	47.3	32.7	1.3
355	118.3	22	0.3
319	106.3	21	0.4
Total			8.6

The table above is a 4 x 2 contingency table, hence the degree of freedom.

(df) = (C – 1) (R – 1)

(df) = (4 – 1) (2 – 1)

df = 3 x 1 = 3

Thus, df = 3.

The table value of X²at a significance level of 0.05 and degree of 3 = 7.815. The calculated value of X² = 8.6  Since the calculated value of X² is greater than the table value of X², we therefore accept the alternate hypothesis which states that there is a significant relationship between apprenticeship practices and poverty reduction.

Testing of Hypothesis Two

Hypothesis two states that; there is a significant relationship between apprenticeship practices and youth development. To test this hypothesis, the responses of the respondents in items 2, 3 and 5 as represented in table 4.7 were used

Table 9 Chi-square Analysis for apprenticeship practices and youth development

Items	SA	A	D	SD	Total
2	148	134	20	21	323B1
3	149	100	30	44	323B2
5	125	125	30	43	323B3
Total	422A1	359A2	80A3	108A4	969

Computing formular for chi-square

X2 = ∑(O₁ – E₁)²

                        E₁

Where ∑ = Summation

                        O = Observed values

                        E = Expected values

Placing the observed and expected values in a tabular form, we have;

Table 10 Data for Hypothesis Two

O	E	(O – E)	(O – E)2/E
148	140.6	7.4	0.8
134	119.7	14.3	0.5
20	26.7	6.7	0.5
21	36	15	0.8
149	140.6	8.4	0.1
100	119.7	19.7	1.2
30	26.7	3.3	0.8
44	36	8	1.4
125	140.6	15.6	0.8
125	119.7	5.3	0.1
200	66.7	133.3	3.9
43	36	7	0.4
Total			11.3

The table above is a 4 x 2 contingency table, hence the degree of freedom.

(df) = (C – 1) (R – 1)

(df) = (4 – 1) (2 – 1)

df = 3 x 1 = 3

Thus, df = 3.

The table value of X² at a significance level of 0.05 and degree of 3 = 7.815. The calculated value of X² = 11.3.Since the calculated value of X² is greater than the table value of X², we therefore accept the alternate hypothesis which states that  there is a significant relationship between apprenticeship practices and youth development

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

Base on the research carried out on apprenticeship practices and sustainable development in Nnewi, we found that:

Apprenticeship practices has led to poverty reduction in Nnewi. This is in line with Olaoye (2021) that apprenticeship training is the basis for successful entrepreneurship which could lead to poverty reduction: entrepreneurship is the application of skills and knowledge acquired through apprenticeship training in allocating and seizing an opportunity in the environment. Apprenticeship therefore is the preparation to meet opportunity. This is also in line with Item 8 in table 5 that apprenticeship practices helps in improving the youths both mentally and socioeconomically as 57.3 percent of the respondents agreed to the question item.

The study also found that apprenticeship practices has led to youth development. This is in line with Ola  (2019), that when robust apprenticeship systems are in place, youths learn employability skills for rewarding careers, youth unemployment is kept low, the state’s productivity is kept high, and employers are ensured a workforce with strong technical and employability skills. This is also in line with Item 13 in table 6 that apprenticeship practices has led to youth development as 110 of the respondents agreed to the question item.

CONCLUSION

Based on the findings, the researcher concluded that:

Apprenticeship practices is very important in making the youths useful in the society. Some of these youths through apprenticeship have contributed greatly to sustainable development.

Apprenticeship practices have to a great extent, help in reducing poverty as the people that are gainfully and meaningfully engaged are now sending money home to help change the status of their family.

 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the research findings, the following recommendations were made:

• That more youths in Nigeria should be allowed to be involved in entrepreneurship training so that it will help reduce the level of poverty
• That the government should make apprenticeship practice compulsory in order to help alleviate poverty in the society.
• Also, apprenticeship practices should be included in the educational curriculum of the nation in order to help our youth become independent after graduation from school.

REFERENCES

1. Achugo E. and Chigbo, C. C. (2019). Empowering, Regulating and Controlling Apprenticeship in Nigeria for Employment and Development. International Journal of Research in Applied, Natural and Social Sciences
2. Africa Development Forum (2014). Youth Employment in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington D.C.: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/the World Bank
3. Ayo, M (2021). ‘The architecture of cognition. Cambridge’, MA: Harvard University Press
4. Ariyo, D. (2001). The Future Lost: The Economic and Social Consequences of Child Abuse in Africa. Journal of Stability and Development 7( 3) 12-19
5. Ariyo, D. (2008). Small firms are the Backbone of the Nigerian Economy. Retrieved on August 24, 2012 from http:/www.africaeconomyanalysis.org.
6. Ashton, D. (2017). Globalisation and the Future of the Youth Labour Market, De Montfort: Leceister
7. Akpan F. (2019). Elements of apprenticeship practices. Uyo: Presh publishers.
8. Bandura, A. (1963). ‘Social learning and personality development’. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
9. Bandura, A. (1997). ‘Social Learning Theory’. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
10. Biobele, R. B. (2019). “Issues affecting Ugandan indigenous entrepreneurship in trade African Journal of Business Management Vol.3 (12), pp. 786-797, December, 2009”
11. Blau, P. 1964. ‘Exchange and power in social life’. New York: Wiley
12. Casson, M. (2014). ‘Youth Unemployment’, Billing and Son Limited, Guilford, London.
13. Chigunta, F. (2017). Youth entrepreneurship: meeting the key policy Challenges. Vanguard, April 12.
14. Collins, A., Brown, J. S. and Newman, S. E. (2021). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 453–494). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
15. De-Munck, B. and H. Soly(2017). ‘Learning on the Shop Floor’ In Historical Perspective’, in B. De Munck, S. L. Kaplanand H. Soly eds., Learning on the Shop Floor: Historical Perspectives on Apprenticeship, (New York, 2007), pp. 3-34.
16. Elumilade, D. O., Asaolu, T. O. and Adereti, S. A. (2020). Appraising the institutional framework for poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics. 2. (4) 78.
17. Epstein, S. R. (1998). Craft Guilds, Apprenticeship, and Technological Change in Preindustrial Europe, Journal of Economic History 58, no. 3 pp. 684-713
18. Fares, J. and Puerto, S.O. (2009). Towards comprehensive training, SP Discussion Paper No. 0924 (Washington, The World Bank).
19. Hamilton, S. F. and M.A. Hamilton, (1992). Toward a youth apprenticeship system: A progress report from the youth apprenticeship demonstration project in Broome County, NY. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.
20. Hargreaves, D. H. (2022) ‘Learning for Life, Bristol: The Policy Press
21. Humphries, J. 2003. ‘English Apprenticeship: A Neglected Factor in the First Industrial Revolution’, in P. A. Davidand M. Thomas eds., The Economic Future in Historical Perspective, (Oxford, 2003), pp. 73-102
22. International Labour Office (2008). Apprenticeship in the informal economy in Africa: Workshop report, Geneva, 3-4 May 2007 / International Labour Office, Skills and Employability Department. – Geneva:
23. International Labour Office (2011). Global Employment Trends for Youth: 2011 Update, (Geneva).
24. International Labour Office (2012). Overview of Apprenticeship Systems and Issues ILO contribution to the G20 Task Force on Employment November Geneva 2012
25. International Labour Office (2014). International Labour Office, Skills and Employability Department, Job Creation and Enterprise Development Department. Geneva: ILO, 2014
26. Johnson, S.D. 1992. A framework for technology education curricula which emphasizes intellectual processes. Journal of Technology Education, 3; 1-11.
27. Lane, J. 1996. ‘Apprenticeship in England 1600–1914. London: UCL Press.
28. Lave, J. and Wenger, E. 1991. ‘Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
29. Olarewaju, Y.(2017). Importance of apprenticeship practices. Lagos: Ola publishers.