Environmental Stress and Social Dynamics: Analyzing the Long-term Effects of Rohingya Refugee Influx in Bangladesh

Environmental Stress and Social Dynamics: Analyzing the Long-term Effects of Rohingya Refugee Influx in Bangladesh

Mohammad Ali and Tanzima Shahreen

Humanitarian Professional and Researcher, Bangladesh

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2024.1110054

Received: 07 October 2024; Accepted: 16 October 2024; Published: 19 November 2024

ABSTRACT

The Rohingya refugee crisis has profoundly impacted Bangladesh, particularly in the Cox’s Bazar region, where over one million refugees have sought shelter since 2017. This paper examines the environmental footprint and social implications of this influx, focusing on the challenges and opportunities it presents. The environmental analysis reveals significant deforestation, soil erosion, and strain on water resources due to the establishment of refugee camps (UNDP, 2018; ReliefWeb, 2018). These changes have increased the risk of natural disasters such as landslides and flooding, necessitating sustainable management strategies.

Socially, the influx has altered demographic dynamics, intensified competition for resources, and strained relationships between refugees and host communities (Frontiers, 2022; USIP, 2023). Economic impacts include wage depression and market instability, exacerbating existing vulnerabilities in the host community (Tandfonline, 2020). Educational challenges persist for both refugee and local children due to limited access to quality education (Human Rights Watch, 2019).

The study highlights the need for comprehensive policy responses that integrate environmental management with social cohesion initiatives. Recommendations include enhancing international cooperation to support Bangladesh’s efforts in managing the crisis effectively. Future research should focus on long-term environmental monitoring, economic impact assessments, and strategies for improving health care and education access for both populations. By addressing these areas, stakeholders can develop informed policies that promote sustainable development and social stability in Cox’s Bazar.

Keywords: Rohingya Refugee Crisis, Environmental Impact, Social Implications, Cox’s Bazar Deforestation, Resource Competition, Social Cohesion, Economic Impact, Education Access, International Cooperation

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Rohingya refugee crisis

The Rohingya refugee crisis is one of the most significant and protracted humanitarian challenges in recent history, with profound implications for both the refugees and the host country, Bangladesh. This crisis primarily stems from longstanding ethnic tensions and systemic discrimination against the Rohingya people in Myanmar. Historically, the Rohingya, a Muslim minority group in Myanmar’s Rakhine State, have faced severe persecution and have been denied citizenship under Myanmar’s 1982 citizenship law (Doctors Without Borders, 2019; Anadolu Ajansı, 2023).

The latest and largest wave of displacement began in August 2017, following a military crackdown by Myanmar’s armed forces in response to attacks by the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army on police posts. This crackdown led to widespread violence, including reports of mass killings, sexual violence, and arson, which forced over 700,000 Rohingya to flee across the border into Bangladesh within weeks (Anadolu Ajansı, 2023; Doctors Without Borders, 2019). This influx added to the existing Rohingya population already residing in Bangladesh due to previous waves of displacement in 1978 and the early 1990s (Frontiers Publishing Partnerships, 2023).

Currently, over one million Rohingya refugees live in Bangladesh’s Cox’s Bazar district, which hosts the largest refugee settlement in the world. The camps are characterized by overcrowding and inadequate infrastructure, leading to significant challenges in sanitation, healthcare, and emergency management (ReliefWeb, 2019; EECentre, n.d.). The refugees are almost entirely dependent on humanitarian aid for survival, facing legal and social barriers that prevent them from integrating into Bangladeshi society or relocating elsewhere (IOM Bangladesh Appeal, 2024).

The crisis has also placed immense pressure on Bangladesh’s resources and infrastructure. The host communities in Cox’s Bazar have experienced economic strain due to increased demand for goods and services, rising prices, and competition for jobs (The Financial Express, 2023). Environmental degradation has been exacerbated by deforestation and pollution resulting from the establishment of refugee camps (EECentre, n.d.). Despite these challenges, Bangladesh continues to provide refuge on humanitarian grounds while advocating for the safe repatriation of the Rohingya to Myanmar (SPF Foundation, 2024).

Efforts by international organizations to address the crisis have focused on providing immediate humanitarian aid while seeking long-term solutions. However, reduced funding and shifting global priorities pose significant challenges to sustaining these efforts (IOM Bangladesh Appeal, 2024). The international community continues to call for accountability for human rights violations in Myanmar and supports initiatives aimed at ensuring safe conditions for any potential repatriation of the Rohingya refugees (Anadolu Ajansı, 2023).

Significance of the study

The significance of studying the environmental footprint and social implications of the Rohingya refugee influx in Bangladesh is multifaceted, addressing both immediate and long-term challenges faced by the host country. The influx has led to profound environmental degradation, including deforestation, soil erosion, and water resource depletion, which have severely impacted local ecosystems and biodiversity (EECentre, n.d.; UNDP, 2018). Understanding these impacts is crucial for developing sustainable management practices that can mitigate environmental damage and preserve natural resources for future generations.

Socially, the presence of over one million Rohingya refugees has created significant socioeconomic challenges for host communities. These include increased competition for jobs, rising prices for essential goods, and heightened tensions between refugees and local residents (The Financial Express, 2023; Frontiers Publishing Partnerships, 2023). Analyzing these social dynamics is essential to formulating policies that promote social cohesion and economic stability in affected regions.

Furthermore, this study is significant because it provides a comprehensive assessment that can inform both national policy-making and international humanitarian efforts. By identifying the key environmental and social issues associated with the refugee influx, stakeholders can develop targeted interventions that address both immediate needs and long-term developmental goals (EECentre, 2024; UNDP, 2018). This research also contributes to the broader discourse on refugee management by highlighting the importance of integrating environmental sustainability and social equity into humanitarian responses.

Lies in its potential to guide effective policy and intervention strategies that balance humanitarian assistance with sustainable development. It aims to provide insights that can help mitigate adverse impacts on both the environment and host communities while fostering a more resilient socio-economic framework in Bangladesh.

Research objectives

The research objectives of this study are designed to comprehensively address the multifaceted impacts of the Rohingya refugee influx in Bangladesh, focusing on both environmental and social dimensions. These objectives aim to provide a foundation for sustainable policy development and effective humanitarian interventions.

• Assess the Environmental Impact: The primary objective is to evaluate the environmental footprint of the Rohingya refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar. This includes analyzing the extent of deforestation, soil erosion, and water resource depletion caused by the influx. By establishing a baseline of the environmental context, this study seeks to identify both current and potential environmental impacts, as well as propose mitigation measures to address these challenges.
• Examine Social Implications: Another critical objective is to explore the social implications of the refugee influx on host communities. This involves assessing changes in socio-economic conditions, such as fluctuations in prices, wages, and poverty incidence, as well as impacts on public services and social cohesion. Understanding these dynamics is essential for promoting social stability and economic resilience in affected areas.
• Integrate Humanitarian Efforts with Development Goals: The study aims to bridge humanitarian responses with long-term development strategies. By integrating findings from environmental and social assessments, it seeks to inform policies that facilitate sustainable development while addressing immediate humanitarian needs. This objective underscores the importance of coordinated efforts among government agencies, international organizations, and local stakeholders.
• Propose Sustainable Management Strategies: Finally, the study intends to develop actionable recommendations for sustainable management of resources and social integration. This includes advocating for improved planning and living standards within refugee camps and host communities, as well as promoting initiatives like reforestation and livelihood support programs.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Historical context of Rohingya displacement

The historical context of the Rohingya displacement is deeply rooted in a series of political, social, and ethnic tensions in Myanmar, formerly known as Burma. The Rohingya, a Muslim ethnic minority, have faced systematic discrimination and violence over the decades, leading to multiple waves of forced migration.

The origins of the Rohingya crisis can be traced back to the late 18th century when Arakan (now Rakhine State) was annexed by the Burmese kingdom. This period marked the beginning of tensions between the Rohingya and the Buddhist majority (RCC Chicago, 2024). During British colonial rule in the 19th and early 20th centuries, these tensions were exacerbated as the British favored Muslims for administrative roles, fueling resentment among the Buddhist population (RCC Chicago, 2024).

In 1948, following Burma’s independence from British rule, the new government refused to recognize the Rohingya as citizens, setting the stage for decades of marginalization (RCC Chicago, 2024). The 1982 Citizenship Law further entrenched this exclusion by denying citizenship to the Rohingya, labeling them as illegal immigrants despite their long-standing presence in Myanmar (USA for UNHCR, 2024).

The first major exodus occurred in 1978 when Myanmar’s military launched Operation Dragon King, targeting the Rohingya with mass arrests and violence. This operation forced approximately 200,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh (Doctors Without Borders, 2019; Anadolu Ajansı, 2023). A second significant wave occurred in 1991-1992 due to increased military presence and human rights abuses in Rakhine State, resulting in another 250,000 refugees seeking asylum in Bangladesh (The Financial Express, 2023; Anadolu Ajansı, 2023).

The most recent and largest displacement began in August 2017 after a violent crackdown by Myanmar’s military in response to attacks by Rohingya militants. This led to over 700,000 Rohingya fleeing to Bangladesh within weeks, marking one of the fastest-growing refugee crises globally (Doctors Without Borders, 2019; USA for UNHCR, 2024). The international community has widely condemned these actions as ethnic cleansing or genocide.

This historical context highlights the persistent cycle of persecution and displacement faced by the Rohingya. Understanding this background is crucial for addressing the ongoing humanitarian needs and developing sustainable solutions for both refugees and host communities.

Environmental impacts of refugee settlements

The environmental impacts of refugee settlements, particularly in the context of the Rohingya influx into Bangladesh, are profound and multifaceted. The arrival of over 700,000 Rohingya refugees since August 2017 has led to significant environmental degradation in the Cox’s Bazar region, which hosts the world’s largest refugee camp (EECentre, 2024; UNDP, 2018).

One of the most immediate and visible impacts is deforestation. The establishment of refugee camps has necessitated the clearing of large areas of forest to accommodate temporary shelters and infrastructure. Approximately 6,000 acres of government land, including forest and hilly areas, have been leveled to make room for these settlements (The Daily Star, 2019). This deforestation has not only destroyed wildlife habitats but also contributed to soil erosion and disrupted local ecosystems (EECentre, 2024.; The Daily Star, 2019).

The demand for fuelwood among the refugee population has further exacerbated deforestation. It is estimated that nearly three-quarters of a million kilograms of timber are collected daily from reserve forests to be used as cooking fuel (The Daily Star, 2019). This unsustainable harvesting has led to a rapid depletion of forest resources and increased pressure on protected areas (UNDP, 2018).

In addition to deforestation, the influx has led to significant pollution and waste management challenges. The dense population in refugee camps has resulted in inadequate sanitation facilities and waste disposal systems, leading to pollution of local water bodies and land (McCue, 1993; The Daily Star, 2019). The contamination of water sources poses serious health risks to both refugees and host communities.

Furthermore, the environmental impacts extend beyond immediate physical changes. The alteration of land use patterns has affected ecosystem services, with studies indicating a decline in the ecological quality of the region (NCBI, 2023). This includes a reduction in biodiversity and a disruption of traditional livelihoods dependent on natural resources (NCBI, 2023; McCue, 1993).

These environmental challenges highlight the urgent need for sustainable management practices and interventions. Efforts must focus on reforestation, sustainable resource use, and improved infrastructure for waste management to mitigate these impacts. By addressing these environmental issues, policymakers can better support both refugee populations and host communities in maintaining ecological balance and resilience.

Social implications of large-scale refugee influx

The large-scale influx of Rohingya refugees into Bangladesh has had profound social implications for the host communities, particularly in the Cox’s Bazar region. This section reviews the literature on these social impacts, highlighting the challenges and dynamics that have emerged as a result of this humanitarian crisis.

One of the most significant social implications is the economic strain placed on host communities. The sudden increase in population has led to a rise in the prices of essential goods and services, with reports indicating a 50% increase in daily essentials (The Daily Star, 2019). This inflation, coupled with a decrease in wages for local laborers due to competition from cheaper refugee labor, has exacerbated poverty levels among the host population (The Daily Star, 2019; Hossain, 2024). The availability of cheap labor from the Rohingya has also led to increased unemployment among local workers, further straining economic conditions (Frontiers Publishing Partnerships, 2023).

Social tensions have also been exacerbated by the influx. Initially, there was a strong sense of solidarity and support from the host communities towards the refugees. However, over time, this sentiment has shifted towards resistance and resentment as resources become increasingly scarce and competition for jobs intensifies (Khan, 2018; Chowdhury, 2019). The perception that humanitarian aid disproportionately benefits refugees at the expense of local communities has further fueled these tensions (SpringerOpen, 2021).

Healthcare services have been particularly impacted by the refugee influx. The increased demand for medical services has overwhelmed local healthcare facilities, leading to long wait times and reduced access for host community members (The Financial Express, 2023). This strain on healthcare resources has been compounded by a lack of adequate infrastructure to support both refugees and locals (ReliefWeb, 2019).

Additionally, there are significant cultural and social integration challenges. The presence of a large refugee population has altered the social fabric of host communities, leading to cultural clashes and misunderstandings. Efforts to promote positive interactions between refugees and host communities are essential to reduce prejudice and foster social cohesion (Frontiers Publishing Partnerships, 2023).

Overall, underscores the need for comprehensive strategies that address both immediate humanitarian needs and long-term social integration. Such strategies should focus on equitable resource distribution, improved infrastructure, and initiatives that foster positive relations between refugees and host communities.

Previous studies on the Rohingya situation in Bangladesh

The literature on the Rohingya situation in Bangladesh is extensive, reflecting the complex and multifaceted nature of the crisis. Several studies have focused on understanding the environmental and social impacts of the refugee influx, providing valuable insights into the challenges faced by both the refugees and host communities.

One significant study conducted by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and other partners assessed the environmental impacts of the Rohingya influx. This Rapid Environmental Assessment highlighted severe environmental degradation, including deforestation and pollution, caused by the establishment of refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar (UNDP, 2018). The study identified key environmental challenges such as soil erosion, water scarcity, and loss of biodiversity, emphasizing the need for sustainable management practices to mitigate these impacts (UNDP, 2018).

In terms of social implications, a joint impact assessment by UNDP and the Policy Research Institute of Bangladesh explored the socio-economic effects on host communities. The report noted significant economic strain due to increased prices of essential goods and decreased wages for local laborers, which have contributed to rising poverty levels among host populations (ReliefWeb, 2019). This assessment underscored the importance of integrating humanitarian efforts with long-term development strategies to support both refugees and host communities effectively (ReliefWeb, 2019).

Further research has examined the evolving dynamics between host communities and refugees. A study published in the Journal of International Humanitarian Action analyzed how initial solidarity towards refugees has shifted towards resistance due to economic instability and unequal access to resources (Khan, 2018). The study highlighted that political uncertainty regarding the future of the Rohingya crisis has further complicated these relationships (Khan, 2018).

Additionally, qualitative research conducted by Frontiers Publishing Partnerships explored cultural and socio-economic changes in both refugee camps and host communities. This study identified market instability, land degradation, and social tensions as major challenges affecting sustainable livelihoods (Frontiers Publishing Partnerships, 2023). It emphasized the need for policies that promote social cohesion and equitable resource distribution.

Overall, these studies collectively highlight the urgent need for comprehensive strategies that address both immediate humanitarian needs and long-term developmental goals. By synthesizing findings from various research efforts, policymakers can better navigate the complexities of managing large-scale refugee crises in a manner that benefits all stakeholders involved.

METHODOLOGY

Research design

The research design for this study on the environmental footprint and social implications of the Rohingya refugee influx in Bangladesh employs a mixed-methods approach. This design integrates both quantitative and qualitative data to provide a comprehensive analysis of the complex issues at hand.

Quantitative Component

The quantitative aspect of the research involves the collection and analysis of environmental and socio-economic data. Environmental data will be gathered through satellite imagery and Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping to assess changes in land use, deforestation rates, and soil erosion in Cox’s Bazar before and after the influx of refugees. Additionally, water quality tests and resource depletion metrics will be conducted to quantify the environmental impact.

Socio-economic data will be collected through structured surveys administered to both host community members and Rohingya refugees. These surveys will measure variables such as household income, employment status, access to resources, and perceptions of social cohesion. The quantitative data will be analyzed using statistical software to identify trends, correlations, and significant differences between pre- and post-influx conditions.

Qualitative Component

The qualitative component involves conducting in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with key stakeholders, including local government officials, non-governmental organization (NGO) representatives, community leaders, and affected individuals from both host communities and refugee camps. These discussions aim to capture nuanced perspectives on the social dynamics, cultural tensions, and community responses to the refugee influx.

Content analysis will be applied to qualitative data to identify recurring themes and insights that complement the quantitative findings. This approach allows for a richer understanding of the human experiences and socio-cultural impacts associated with the crisis.

Integration of Methods

The integration of quantitative and qualitative methods enables triangulation, enhancing the validity and reliability of the research findings. By combining numerical data with personal narratives and expert opinions, this study aims to provide a holistic view of the environmental and social challenges posed by the Rohingya refugee situation in Bangladesh.

Overall, this mixed-methods research design is well-suited for addressing the multifaceted nature of the crisis, facilitating informed policy recommendations that are grounded in empirical evidence.

Data collection methods

The data collection methods for this study on the environmental footprint and social implications of the Rohingya refugee influx in Bangladesh are designed to capture both quantitative and qualitative data, providing a comprehensive understanding of the complex issues involved.

Quantitative Data Collection

• Surveys: Structured surveys will be administered to both Rohingya refugees and host community members to gather quantitative data on socio-economic conditions, resource usage, and perceptions of social cohesion. These surveys will include questions on household income, employment status, access to resources, and changes in community dynamics.
• Environmental Assessments: Quantitative environmental data will be collected through remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping. This will involve the use of satellite imagery to assess changes in land use, deforestation rates, and soil erosion in Cox’s Bazar. Additionally, water quality tests will be conducted to measure the impact on local water resources.

Qualitative Data Collection

• Key Informant Interviews (KIIs): In-depth interviews with key stakeholders such as local government officials, NGO representatives, community leaders, and affected individuals will be conducted. These interviews aim to capture detailed insights into the social dynamics and cultural tensions arising from the refugee influx .
• Focus Group Discussions (FGDs): FGDs will be held with diverse groups within both refugee and host communities to explore their experiences and perspectives on the crisis. These discussions will help identify recurring themes related to social integration challenges and resource competition.
• Direct Observations: Researchers will conduct direct observations within refugee camps and surrounding host communities to document living conditions, resource utilization patterns, and interactions between refugees and locals. This method provides contextual information that complements survey and interview data.

By employing these data collection methods, the study aims to integrate quantitative measurements with qualitative insights, facilitating a nuanced analysis of the environmental and social impacts of the Rohingya refugee influx.

Analytical framework

The analytical framework for this study on the environmental footprint and social implications of the Rohingya refugee influx in Bangladesh is designed to integrate both quantitative and qualitative analyses, utilizing advanced methodologies to assess complex impacts.

Quantitative Analysis

The quantitative component of the analysis employs machine learning and statistical techniques to evaluate changes in land use and land cover (LULC) and their subsequent effects on ecosystem services. This involves using remote sensing data to create accurate LULC maps through supervised machine learning classification methods such as artificial neural networks (ANN), support vector machines (SVM), and random forests (RF). These maps facilitate the quantification of changes in ecosystem service values and functions, providing a robust basis for assessing ecological quality (EQ) conditions before and after the refugee influx.

Furthermore, the study incorporates fuzzy logic models to develop a comprehensive EQ model, allowing for a nuanced assessment of environmental health and sustainability. This approach enables the estimation of land use-specific carbon emissions, absorption rates, and land surface temperature (LST), providing critical insights into the environmental impacts of refugee settlements.

Qualitative Analysis

The qualitative analysis is structured around thematic content analysis of data collected from key informant interviews (KIIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) with stakeholders such as local government officials, NGO representatives, community leaders, and affected individuals. This qualitative data is used to explore socio-economic dynamics, cultural tensions, and community responses to the refugee influx. The insights gained from these discussions help contextualize the quantitative findings and provide a deeper understanding of the social implications.

Integration of Methods

The integration of quantitative and qualitative methods allows for triangulation, enhancing the reliability and validity of the research findings. By combining empirical data with stakeholder perspectives, this framework provides a holistic view of the environmental and social challenges posed by the Rohingya refugee influx. The analytical framework is designed to inform policy-making by identifying key areas for intervention and proposing sustainable management strategies that address both immediate humanitarian needs and long-term developmental goals.

ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT

Deforestation and Land Use Changes

The influx of Rohingya refugees into Bangladesh has resulted in significant environmental impacts, particularly in terms of deforestation and land use changes. This section examines the extent of these changes and their implications for the region’s ecological health.

Extent of Deforestation

The establishment of refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar has led to extensive deforestation. Approximately 4,818 acres of forest reserve have been destroyed to accommodate the refugee population, with both project and natural forest areas being significantly affected (The Financial Express, 2023; UNDP, 2018). The removal of trees and vegetation for shelter construction and fuelwood collection has not only reduced forest cover but also disrupted local ecosystems. The deforestation rate was so alarming that experts predicted the complete disappearance of forested areas in Cox’s Bazar if the trend continued (FAO, 2022).

Land Use Changes

The transformation of land use in the region has been profound. The expansion of refugee settlements has officially led to the loss of approximately 2,500 hectares of land, valued at around USD 86.67 million (NCBI, 2023). This change in land use has resulted in a 9.58% decrease in forest area and an 8.25% increase in settlement areas, indicating a significant shift from natural habitats to human-dominated landscapes (NCBI, 2023). Such changes have adverse effects on ecosystem services, including a decline in biodiversity and raw materials by 14.57% and 13.58%, respectively (NCBI, 2023).

Environmental Implications

The environmental implications of these changes are far-reaching. Deforestation has led to habitat destruction, soil erosion, and increased risk of natural disasters such as landslides (UNDP, 2018). The disruption of the water cycle due to vegetation loss has further exacerbated ecological risks and threatened traditional livelihoods dependent on forest resources (NCBI, 2023). Moreover, the fragmentation of forests has increased ecological vulnerabilities and contributed to the extinction of threatened species (FAO, 2022).

Efforts to mitigate these impacts have included reforestation initiatives and sustainable land management practices. Organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) have collaborated with local communities to restore degraded lands through afforestation and agroforestry projects (FAO, 2022). These efforts aim to stabilize soils, enhance biodiversity, and improve living conditions for both refugees and host communities.

The deforestation and land use changes resulting from the Rohingya refugee influx have had severe environmental consequences. Addressing these challenges requires coordinated efforts to implement sustainable management strategies that balance humanitarian needs with ecological conservation.

Extent of forest cover loss

The extent of forest cover loss in Cox’s Bazar due to the Rohingya refugee influx is significant and has profound implications for the region’s ecological balance. This section details the scale of deforestation and the changes in land use that have occurred since the arrival of refugees in 2017.

Extent of Forest Cover Loss

The influx of Rohingya refugees has led to the destruction of over 8,000 acres of reserved forest in Cox’s Bazar, as reported by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (The Daily Star, 2019). This deforestation has been driven by the need to clear land for refugee settlements and to provide fuelwood for cooking, resulting in severe damage to both natural and planted forests. Specifically, 6,164.02 acres of reserved forest were cleared to make way for settlements, with an additional 1,837 acres of forest being depleted for firewood (The Daily Star, 2019).

Remote sensing analysis corroborates these findings, indicating a nearly 20% decline in forest cover from 2017 to 2020 across the district (World Bank, 2021). The study highlights that before the influx in February 2017, about 54% of the areas now occupied by refugee camps were forested. By 2020, this figure had dropped to just 2%, reflecting a dramatic reduction in forest cover (World Bank, 2021).

Environmental Implications

The extensive deforestation has led to significant environmental degradation. The removal of trees and vegetation has increased soil erosion and disrupted local ecosystems, leading to habitat loss for wildlife and increased human-wildlife conflicts (FAO, 2022; World Bank, 2021). Additionally, the loss of forest cover has intensified surface runoff, raising the risk of landslides and flash floods in a region already vulnerable to natural disasters (FAO, 2022).

Efforts to address these issues have included reforestation initiatives led by organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), which have worked with local communities and refugees to restore degraded lands through afforestation projects (FAO, 2022). These initiatives aim to stabilize soils, enhance biodiversity, and improve ecological resilience.

The extent of forest cover loss due to the Rohingya refugee influx is substantial and poses ongoing challenges for environmental management in Cox’s Bazar. Addressing these challenges requires sustained efforts in reforestation and sustainable land management practices to mitigate further ecological damage.

Impact on biodiversity and ecosystems

The influx of Rohingya refugees into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has led to significant impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems, primarily due to extensive deforestation and land use changes. This section explores the consequences of these environmental disruptions on local biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Impact on Biodiversity

The rapid expansion of refugee settlements has resulted in the destruction of critical habitats within Cox’s Bazar, including areas within the Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary, Himchhari National Park, and Inani National Park (The Daily Star, 2019). Over 2,000 hectares of forest have been cleared to accommodate the refugee population, leading to a substantial loss of biodiversity (The Daily Star, 2019). The deforestation has disrupted habitats for numerous plant and animal species, including threatened and critically endangered species such as the wild Asian elephant (World Bank, 2021; NCBI, 2023).

The construction of refugee camps has blocked traditional migration corridors for elephants, exacerbating human-wildlife conflicts. Reports indicate that the closure of these corridors has resulted in increased incidents of elephant-human conflict, with several casualties reported among both humans and elephants (The Daily Star, 2019). This disruption not only threatens the survival of the Asian elephant but also impacts other wildlife dependent on these forested areas for survival.

Impact on Ecosystem Services

The environmental changes have also led to a decline in ecosystem services. The loss of forest cover has reduced the area’s capacity to provide essential services such as carbon sequestration, soil stabilization, and water regulation (NCBI, 2023). A study utilizing remote sensing data revealed a 9.58% decrease in forest area and a corresponding 8.25% increase in settlement areas between 2017 and 2021 (NCBI, 2023). This shift has resulted in a significant decline in the ecosystem services value (ESV) for forests by 21.97%, equating to a loss of $5.33 million (NCBI, 2023).

Moreover, the degradation of ecosystems has led to increased soil erosion and altered hydrological cycles, further impacting agricultural productivity and traditional livelihoods (World Bank, 2021). The fragmentation of forests due to settlement expansion has increased ecological risks and reduced habitat connectivity, making it difficult for species to adapt to changing environmental conditions.

The impact of the Rohingya refugee influx on biodiversity and ecosystems in Cox’s Bazar is profound and multifaceted. Addressing these challenges requires coordinated efforts to implement conservation strategies that mitigate further environmental degradation while promoting sustainable resource management. Restoration initiatives and habitat protection are crucial to preserving biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem services essential for both human well-being and ecological resilience.

Water Resources

Strain on groundwater and surface water

The massive influx of Rohingya refugees into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has placed significant strain on both groundwater and surface water resources, exacerbating existing challenges in water availability and quality. This section examines the extent of these impacts and their implications for both refugee and host communities.

Strain on Groundwater Resources

The primary source of drinking water in the Cox’s Bazar region is groundwater, accessed through numerous tube wells installed across the refugee camps. However, the rapid increase in population has led to excessive extraction of groundwater, resulting in a notable decline in water table levels. Reports indicate that groundwater levels have decreased by 9 to 11 feet since the influx began, making it increasingly difficult for both refugees and host communities to access sufficient water supplies (The Financial Express, 2023). This over-reliance on groundwater poses serious concerns regarding the long-term sustainability of this resource (UNICEF, 2019).

The installation of deep tube wells to meet the escalating demand has further compounded the issue by increasing the cost and complexity of accessing groundwater. As the depth required to reach water increases, so does the financial burden on both humanitarian agencies and local residents (The Financial Express, 2023).

Strain on Surface Water Resources

Surface water sources, including ponds and streams, are also utilized, particularly during the monsoon season when water availability is higher. However, these sources are highly susceptible to contamination from human waste, agricultural runoff, and other pollutants. The inadequate maintenance of storage and collection systems has led to microbial growth and contamination, posing significant health risks to camp inhabitants (M Ali, T Shahreen, 2024).

Furthermore, the region’s proximity to saline coastal areas means that much of the available surface water is unsuitable for consumption without treatment. This salinity intrusion further limits the availability of potable surface water for both refugees and host communities (Shamsudduha et al., 2019).

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The strain on water resources has direct implications for public health and sanitation in the camps. The prevalence of waterborne diseases remains high due to inadequate access to clean water and sanitation facilities (Islam et al., 2020). Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach that includes improving water infrastructure, promoting rainwater harvesting during the monsoon season, and implementing sustainable groundwater management practices.

Efforts should also focus on enhancing sanitation infrastructure to prevent contamination of existing water sources. This includes regular maintenance of latrines and waste disposal systems to reduce health risks associated with poor hygiene conditions (MSF South Asia, 2022).

Mitigating the strain on groundwater and surface water resources in Cox’s Bazar necessitates coordinated efforts among governmental bodies, humanitarian agencies, and local communities. Sustainable management strategies are essential to ensuring long-term access to clean water for both refugees and host populations.

Water quality issues

The quality of water in the Rohingya refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has been a persistent concern, with significant implications for public health. This section explores the various water quality issues faced by the refugee population and the measures being taken to address them.

Microbial Contamination

One of the primary water quality issues in the camps is microbial contamination. Tests conducted on groundwater, surface water, and rainwater harvesting systems have consistently shown high levels of microbial pathogens, particularly Escherichia coli (E. coli), indicating fecal contamination (M Ali, T Shahreen, 2024). The presence of E. coli in drinking water sources is a clear indicator of inadequate sanitation and poor waste management practices in the densely populated camps (WHO, 2018). This contamination poses a significant risk of waterborne diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid, which are prevalent in the camps (Islam et al., 2020).

Chemical Contaminants

In addition to microbial contamination, chemical pollutants such as arsenic and nitrates have been detected in some water sources. These contaminants can have severe health effects, including long-term risks such as cancer and developmental issues in children (M Ali, T Shahreen, 2024). The combination of chemical and microbial contamination exacerbates the challenges of ensuring safe drinking water for the refugee population.

Infrastructure and Maintenance Challenges

The infrastructure for water storage and distribution in the camps is often inadequate and poorly maintained. Many storage systems are not regularly cleaned or properly managed, leading to further contamination of stored water (UNHCR, 2019). The lack of proper filtration systems means that even rainwater collected for use can be contaminated with bacteria and other pathogens if not treated correctly (M Ali, T Shahreen, 2024).

Health Implications

The poor quality of available water has direct health implications for the refugee population. Waterborne diseases remain a leading cause of morbidity in the camps, particularly affecting children who are more vulnerable to the effects of contaminated water (Islam et al., 2020). Addressing these health risks requires urgent improvements in water treatment and sanitation practices.

Efforts to Improve Water Quality

Efforts to improve water quality include the distribution of community and household water filters by organizations such as WHO. These filters are designed to remove contaminants from drinking water and are provided to health facilities and households most at risk (WHO, 2018). Additionally, training programs have been implemented to ensure proper installation and maintenance of these filters to maximize their effectiveness over time.

Some progress has been made in improving water quality through infrastructure improvements and filtration systems, significant challenges remain. Continued efforts are needed to enhance sanitation infrastructure and ensure consistent access to safe drinking water for all residents in the camps.

Waste Management

Solid waste generation and disposal challenges

The generation and disposal of solid waste in the Rohingya refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, present significant challenges due to the high population density and limited infrastructure. This section explores the extent of waste generation and the associated disposal challenges within these camps.

Solid Waste Generation

The Rohingya refugee camps produce a substantial amount of solid waste, estimated at around 10,000 tons per month, which translates to approximately 460 grams of waste per person each day (ADRA, 2019). This waste includes household refuse as well as residues from distributed non-food items (NFIs) and commercial goods packaging (WASH Sector Cox’s Bazar, 2022). The sheer volume of waste generated is exacerbated by the widespread use of individually wrapped products and packaged goods, which contribute significantly to the overall waste burden (WASH Sector Cox’s Bazar, 2022).

Disposal Challenges

The lack of adequate solid waste management (SWM) systems poses a threat to both environmental and public health in the camps. Currently, much of the waste is disposed of in open areas or burned, leading to the emission of toxic gases and creating breeding grounds for disease vectors such as flies and rodents (ReliefWeb, 2022). This unsafe handling of waste also blocks essential stormwater drainage systems, increasing the risk of flooding and contamination of local water sources (ReliefWeb, 2022).

In the long term, inadequate disposal practices contribute to soil and water pollution, threatening food safety and public health (ReliefWeb, 2022). The absence of a systematic approach to waste segregation and recycling further complicates efforts to manage solid waste effectively. The need for a comprehensive SWM strategy that includes source segregation, collection, transport, value recovery, and safe disposal is critical (WASH Sector Cox’s Bazar, 2022).

Recommendations for Improvement

To address these challenges, the WASH Sector in Cox’s Bazar has developed a solid waste management strategy that aligns with Bangladesh’s National 3R Strategy (Reduce – Reuse – Recycle) for Waste Management. Key recommendations include:

1. Avoidance of Waste Generation: Humanitarian actors are encouraged to minimize waste generation by promoting reusable and recyclable materials and reducing packaging in distributed goods (WASH Sector Cox’s Bazar, 2022).
2. Establishment of an SWM System: A comprehensive SWM system should be implemented to ensure safe handling and disposal of unavoidable waste. This includes all components from segregation to safe disposal in sanitary landfills (WASH Sector Cox’s Bazar, 2022).
3. Community Engagement: Raising awareness and promoting behavior change among camp residents is essential for successful implementation of SWM practices. Community acceptance and participation are vital for sustainable waste management (WASH Sector Cox’s Bazar, 2022).

By implementing these strategies, it is possible to mitigate the hazardous impacts of solid waste on human health and the environment in the refugee camps.

Sanitation and wastewater management

The management of sanitation and wastewater in the Rohingya refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, presents significant challenges due to the high population density and inadequate infrastructure. This section examines the current state of sanitation and wastewater management, highlighting the key issues and potential solutions.

Sanitation Infrastructure

The sanitation facilities in the camps are largely communal, with shared latrines that often lack privacy and security, particularly for women, children, the elderly, and people with disabilities (IWA Publishing, 2023). The overcrowded conditions have led to a high demand for these facilities, resulting in long wait times and unsanitary conditions. Many latrines are not equipped with proper waste disposal systems, leading to frequent overflows and contamination of nearby areas (MSF South Asia, 2022).

The inadequacy of these facilities is further compounded by the lack of regular maintenance and cleaning. This neglect has resulted in latrines becoming breeding grounds for disease vectors such as flies and mosquitoes, which can transmit illnesses like cholera and dengue fever (MSF South Asia, 2022).

Wastewater Management

Wastewater management is another critical issue in the camps. The lack of a comprehensive sewage system means that most wastewater is disposed of in open drains or pits, leading to contamination of surface water sources and increasing the risk of waterborne diseases (ReliefWeb, 2022). The unplanned nature of the camps has made it difficult to implement effective wastewater treatment solutions, exacerbating public health risks.

Efforts to improve wastewater management have included the installation of decentralized wastewater treatment systems (DEWATS) in some areas. These systems are designed to treat wastewater locally, reducing the environmental impact and improving sanitation conditions (IWA Publishing, 2023). However, widespread implementation remains a challenge due to resource constraints and logistical difficulties.

Health Implications

The poor state of sanitation and wastewater management has direct implications for public health in the camps. The prevalence of waterborne diseases such as diarrhea remains high, particularly among children under five years old (MSF South Asia, 2022). The accumulation of contaminated water also creates breeding environments for mosquitoes, increasing the risk of vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue (MSF South Asia, 2022).

Recommendations for Improvement

To address these challenges, it is essential to enhance the existing sanitation infrastructure by constructing more latrines with improved design features that ensure privacy and security. Regular maintenance schedules should be established to ensure cleanliness and functionality (ReliefWeb, 2022).

Additionally, expanding the use of DEWATS could significantly improve wastewater management by providing localized treatment solutions that are both cost-effective and environmentally friendly (IWA Publishing, 2023). Community engagement and education on proper hygiene practices are also crucial to reducing health risks associated with poor sanitation.

Improving sanitation and wastewater management in the Rohingya camps requires coordinated efforts from humanitarian organizations, government agencies, and local communities. By implementing sustainable solutions and promoting hygiene awareness, it is possible to mitigate health risks and improve living conditions for refugees.

Climate Change Vulnerability

Increased risks of landslides and flooding

The Rohingya refugee influx into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has significantly increased the region’s vulnerability to climate change-related hazards, particularly landslides and flooding. This section discusses the factors contributing to these risks and their implications for the refugee and host communities.

Increased Risks of Landslides

The deforestation required to accommodate the refugee camps has exacerbated soil erosion, significantly increasing the risk of landslides in the hilly terrain of Cox’s Bazar (ReliefWeb, 2022). The removal of vegetation destabilizes slopes, reducing the soil’s cohesion and shear strength, which are critical for slope stability (Geoenvironmental Disasters, 2022). The dense population and construction of temporary shelters on these unstable slopes further heighten the risk. For instance, a catastrophic landslide event on July 27, 2021, triggered by intense rainfall, resulted in five fatalities and displaced thousands due to the collapse of makeshift shelters (Geoenvironmental Disasters, 2022).

Efforts to mitigate landslide risks include reforestation projects that stabilize soil and reduce erosion. These projects involve planting quick-growing species like bamboo and vetiver grass, which provide mechanical and biological stabilization (ReliefWeb, 2022). Such initiatives have been shown to reduce the number of slope failures significantly; for example, incidents decreased from 1,400 in 2019 to 267 in 2020 following reforestation efforts (ReliefWeb, 2022).

Increased Risks of Flooding

The influx has also led to increased flooding risks. The deforested areas contribute to waterlogging and flash floods by reducing the land’s ability to absorb rainfall (Friendship News Desk, 2023). The camps’ inadequate drainage systems exacerbate these issues, leading to frequent inundation during the monsoon season. In August 2023, heavy rainfall resulted in flash floods that affected over 300,000 people across several districts, highlighting the severe impact of these climatic events on both refugees and host communities (Friendship News Desk, 2023).

To combat flooding risks, efforts are being made to improve drainage systems around refugee camps. These include regular maintenance to prevent blockages and ensure efficient water flow during heavy rains (Friendship News Desk, 2023). Additionally, reforestation not only aids in slope stabilization but also enhances water absorption capacity, thereby reducing runoff and flood severity (ReliefWeb, 2022).

Addressing the increased risks of landslides and flooding requires a comprehensive approach that combines reforestation with improved infrastructure and community engagement. By stabilizing slopes and enhancing drainage systems, it is possible to mitigate these climate change vulnerabilities effectively. Continued collaboration between humanitarian organizations and local authorities is essential to implement sustainable solutions that protect both the environment and the communities living in Cox’s Bazar.

Adaptation challenges for refugees and host communities

The Rohingya refugee influx into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has exacerbated the region’s vulnerability to climate change, posing significant adaptation challenges for both refugees and host communities. This section explores these challenges and the efforts being made to address them.

Adaptation Challenges for Refugees

The Rohingya refugees face numerous adaptation challenges due to their precarious living conditions and limited resources. The camps are situated in areas prone to extreme weather events, including monsoon rains and tropical cyclones, which are becoming more frequent and intense due to climate change (UNHCR, 2023). The temporary shelters in the camps are often inadequate to withstand such events, leading to repeated displacement and loss of property (ReliefWeb, 2022).

Water scarcity is another critical issue exacerbated by climate change. Variability in precipitation patterns has led to prolonged dry spells, reducing water availability in the camps (M ALI, T SHAHREEN, 2024). The reliance on groundwater, which is increasingly difficult to replenish due to lower recharge rates, further complicates water security for the refugee population (M ALI, T SHAHREEN, 2024).

Adaptation Challenges for Host Communities

Host communities in Cox’s Bazar also face significant adaptation challenges. The influx of refugees has intensified competition for already scarce resources, including water and arable land (ReliefWeb, 2019). This strain is compounded by climate change impacts such as increased flooding and soil erosion, which threaten agricultural productivity and livelihoods (FAO, 2022).

Additionally, the environmental degradation resulting from deforestation and land use changes has heightened the risk of landslides and flash floods (FAO, 2022). These hazards not only endanger lives but also disrupt infrastructure and access to essential services.

Efforts to Address Adaptation Challenges

Efforts to address these adaptation challenges include reforestation projects that aim to stabilize soil and reduce disaster risks. Initiatives led by organizations such as the FAO involve planting fast-growing species like bamboo and vetiver grass to prevent soil erosion and enhance slope stability (FAO, 2022). These projects also engage refugees in cash-for-work programs, promoting community involvement in environmental restoration (ReliefWeb, 2022).

In terms of water management, strategies are being implemented to diversify water sources and improve infrastructure resilience. This includes the use of rainwater harvesting systems and advanced water treatment technologies to ensure a reliable supply of clean water during dry periods (M Ali, T Shahreen, 2024).

Overall, addressing the adaptation challenges posed by climate change requires a coordinated approach that integrates humanitarian assistance with sustainable development practices. By enhancing resilience through community-based initiatives and infrastructure improvements, both refugees and host communities can better cope with the impacts of climate change.

5 Social Implications

Demographic Changes

The demographic changes resulting from the influx of Rohingya refugees into Bangladesh, particularly in the Cox’s Bazar district, have significantly impacted both the refugee and host communities. This section explores these demographic shifts and their implications.

Population Dynamics

The arrival of over one million Rohingya refugees has dramatically altered the demographic landscape of Cox’s Bazar, where the refugee population now outnumbers the local residents in key areas such as Ukhia and Teknaf (Tandfonline, 2020). This imbalance has created a unique demographic situation where the host community, which was already one of the most impoverished regions in Bangladesh, faces increased pressure on resources and infrastructure (ReliefWeb, 2019).

Gender and Age Composition

The demographic profile of the Rohingya refugees is characterized by a high proportion of women and children. Women constitute approximately 52% of the refugee population, with a significant number being of childbearing age (Tandfonline, 2020). This has resulted in high fertility rates within the camps, further increasing the population density and exacerbating resource scarcity. Additionally, a substantial portion of the refugee population consists of children under 18, including many unaccompanied minors who are particularly vulnerable to exploitation and abuse (Tandfonline, 2020).

Social Implications

The demographic changes have profound social implications for both refugees and host communities. The overwhelming presence of refugees has strained local services such as healthcare, education, and public utilities, leading to increased competition for these resources (Frontiers Partnerships, 2023). The host community’s perception of being marginalized in favor of refugees has led to tensions and resentment (SpringerOpen, 2021).

Moreover, the influx has disrupted traditional social structures within both communities. For instance, the large number of women-headed households among the refugees challenges traditional gender roles and necessitates new forms of community support and governance (Tandfonline, 2020).

Economic Impacts

Demographically driven economic impacts include changes in labor market dynamics. The availability of cheap labor from the refugee population has depressed wages for local workers and increased unemployment among host community members (SpringerOpen, 2021). This economic strain is compounded by rising prices for essential goods due to increased demand (ReliefWeb, 2019).

The demographic changes brought about by the Rohingya refugee influx present significant challenges that require comprehensive policy responses. Addressing these challenges involves improving resource allocation to ensure equitable access to services for both communities and fostering social cohesion through inclusive development strategies.

Population density and distribution shifts

The influx of Rohingya refugees into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has led to significant shifts in population density and distribution, profoundly impacting both the refugee and host communities. This section explores these demographic changes and their implications.

Population Density Increases

The arrival of over one million Rohingya refugees has dramatically increased the population density in Cox’s Bazar, particularly in the sub-districts of Ukhia and Teknaf. These areas have become some of the most densely populated regions in Bangladesh, with refugees now constituting more than a third of the local population (Tandfonline, 2020; SpringerOpen, 2021). The concentration of such a large number of people in a relatively small geographic area has placed immense pressure on local infrastructure and resources, including housing, water supply, and sanitation facilities (Financial Express, 2018).

Distribution Shifts

The distribution of the population has also shifted significantly. Prior to the refugee influx, Cox’s Bazar was primarily a rural area with scattered settlements. However, the establishment of large refugee camps has transformed the landscape into densely populated zones with makeshift shelters and limited infrastructure (Financial Express, 2018). This rapid urbanization has disrupted traditional land use patterns and contributed to environmental degradation, including deforestation and soil erosion (Financial Express, 2018).

Implications for Host Communities

The demographic shifts have several implications for host communities. The increased population density has led to heightened competition for scarce resources such as land, water, and employment opportunities (ReliefWeb, 2019). This competition has exacerbated tensions between refugees and host communities, as locals perceive that their access to resources is being diminished by the presence of refugees (SpringerOpen, 2021).

Moreover, the strain on public services such as healthcare and education has intensified due to the increased demand from both refugees and local residents. The local infrastructure was not designed to accommodate such a large influx of people, leading to overcrowded schools and clinics (ReliefWeb, 2019).

The shifts in population density and distribution resulting from the Rohingya refugee influx present significant challenges that require coordinated responses from both humanitarian organizations and government agencies. Addressing these challenges involves enhancing infrastructure capacity and ensuring equitable access to resources for both refugees and host communities. By doing so, it is possible to mitigate tensions and promote social cohesion in this rapidly changing demographic landscape.

Cultural and ethnic dynamics

The influx of Rohingya refugees into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has significantly altered the cultural and ethnic dynamics between the refugees and the host communities. This section explores these changes and their implications for social cohesion and intergroup relations.

Cultural Proximity and Initial Solidarity

Initially, the cultural proximity between the Rohingya refugees and the host communities in Cox’s Bazar facilitated a sense of solidarity. Both groups share a Sunni Islamic religious identity, and the Rohingya language is similar to the Chittagonian dialect spoken in the region (SpringerOpen, 2021). This cultural affinity contributed to the host community’s initial willingness to provide support and aid to the refugees during the early stages of the crisis (SpringerOpen, 2021).

Evolving Intergroup Relations

Despite this initial solidarity, intergroup relations have evolved as the prolonged presence of refugees has heightened competition for resources and services. Host communities have increasingly perceived the Rohingya as a burden due to economic pressures such as wage depression and increased prices for essential goods (USIP, 2023). The perception that humanitarian aid disproportionately benefits refugees has further fueled resentment among local residents (SpringerOpen, 2021).

Moreover, interactions between the two communities are often limited and negative when they occur. Host community members report feeling marginalized by government policies that prioritize refugee needs over their own, leading to a decline in confidence in governmental and humanitarian interventions (USIP, 2023).

Challenges to Social Cohesion

The demographic shifts resulting from the refugee influx have also strained social cohesion. The significant increase in population density has led to tensions over land use and resource allocation, exacerbating ethnic divides (Brac University, 2019). These tensions are compounded by cultural misunderstandings and prejudices that arise from limited positive contact between the groups (Frontiers Partnerships, 2023).

Efforts to improve social cohesion have involved initiatives aimed at fostering dialogue and understanding between communities. Programs that promote joint community activities and economic collaborations are essential for reducing prejudice and building trust (Brac University, 2019).

The cultural and ethnic dynamics between Rohingya refugees and host communities in Bangladesh are complex and evolving. Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach that includes promoting positive intergroup interactions, ensuring equitable resource distribution, and involving both communities in decision-making processes. By fostering mutual understanding and cooperation, it is possible to mitigate tensions and enhance social cohesion in Cox’s Bazar.

Economic Impact

Labor market effects

The influx of Rohingya refugees into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has had significant impacts on the local labor market, affecting both employment opportunities and wage levels for the host community. This section examines these labor market effects and their broader economic implications.

Increased Labor Supply and Wage Depression

The arrival of a large number of Rohingya refugees has substantially increased the supply of labor in Cox’s Bazar, particularly in the informal sector. Many refugees, despite being officially denied the right to work, have entered the local labor market informally, often accepting lower wages than local workers (SpringerOpen, 2021). This has led to a reduction in wage levels for unskilled and semi-skilled jobs. For example, wages for agricultural and other unskilled jobs in Teknaf and Ukhiya have decreased by more than 14% since the influx began (UNDP, 2018). The average daily wage for laborers fell from Tk. 417 pre-influx to Tk. 357 post-influx, with agricultural wages experiencing even sharper declines (UNDP, 2018).

Impact on Employment Opportunities

The increased competition for jobs has made it difficult for local workers to find employment at fair wage rates. Many host community members have been displaced from traditional occupations such as fishing and agriculture due to the availability of cheaper refugee labor (Hossain, 2024). This displacement has forced some locals to seek alternative livelihoods, often in riskier or less stable sectors (The Daily Star, 2019).

Sectoral Shifts and Economic Adaptation

While the influx has depressed wages in certain sectors, it has also created new opportunities in others. The presence of international NGOs and humanitarian agencies has increased demand for services such as transportation, hospitality, and retail (Financial Express, 2018). However, many locals lack the skills required to take advantage of these emerging opportunities, limiting their ability to benefit from the economic changes brought about by the refugee presence (Financial Express, 2018).

The labor market effects of the Rohingya refugee influx highlight the need for targeted interventions to support both refugees and host communities. Policies aimed at improving skill development and facilitating access to emerging job markets could help mitigate some of the negative impacts on local workers. Additionally, integrating humanitarian efforts with long-term economic planning is essential to ensure sustainable development and social cohesion in Cox’s Bazar.

Pressure on local resources and infrastructure

The influx of Rohingya refugees into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has placed significant pressure on local resources and infrastructure, leading to various economic challenges for the host communities. This section examines these pressures and their broader implications.

Strain on Local Resources

The sudden and massive increase in population due to the refugee influx has intensified the demand for local resources, particularly water and food supplies. Groundwater availability has been severely affected as the primary source of drinking water for both refugees and host communities in Ukhiya and Teknaf (The Financial Express, 2023). The increased extraction of groundwater to meet the needs of the refugee population has led to a significant drop in water tables, making it increasingly difficult for local residents to access clean water (The Financial Express, 2023).

Additionally, the demand for food has surged, causing inflationary pressures on local markets. Prices of essential commodities, including rice and other staples, have risen sharply due to increased demand (ReliefWeb, 2019). This price hike has disproportionately affected low-income households in the host community, forcing them to reduce their meal intake and compromising their nutritional status (The Daily Star, 2019).

Impact on Infrastructure

The influx has also placed a considerable burden on local infrastructure. Roads and transportation networks have been damaged due to increased traffic from humanitarian aid deliveries and the movement of refugees (The Daily Star, 2019). The report estimates that road infrastructure damage amounts to approximately USD 200 million (The Daily Star, 2019). Furthermore, public services such as healthcare and education are overwhelmed by the sheer number of people requiring assistance, leading to reduced access and quality of services for both refugees and locals (ReliefWeb, 2019).

Economic Implications

These pressures on resources and infrastructure have broader economic implications for the host communities. The increased cost of living without a corresponding rise in income levels has pushed many households below the poverty line (ReliefWeb, 2019). The economic strain has also led to social tensions between refugees and host communities as they compete for limited resources (SpringerOpen, 2021).

Addressing the economic impact of resource and infrastructure pressures requires coordinated efforts among government agencies, NGOs, and international organizations. Strategies should focus on enhancing resource management, improving infrastructure resilience, and ensuring equitable access to services. By integrating these efforts into long-term development plans, it is possible to mitigate the adverse effects of the refugee influx on host communities.

Social Cohesion and Conflict

Tensions between refugees and host communities

The influx of Rohingya refugees into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has led to significant tensions between the refugees and host communities, impacting social cohesion and potentially leading to conflict. This section examines these tensions and their implications for both communities.

Rising Tensions and Negative Perceptions

Since the arrival of nearly one million Rohingya refugees in 2017, there has been a noticeable decline in the sympathetic attitude of the host communities towards the refugees. Initially, the host communities were welcoming, but over time, negative perceptions have increased due to the prolonged presence of refugees and the perceived strain on local resources and infrastructure (Frontiersin, 2022; USIP, 2023). Many host community members view the ongoing humanitarian assistance to refugees as excessive, believing that their own needs are being neglected (USIP, 2023).

Limited Interaction and Social Fragmentation

Interactions between Rohingya refugees and host community members are infrequent and often negative when they occur. This lack of positive engagement has contributed to social fragmentation and heightened tensions (USIP, 2023). The construction of fences around refugee camps has further limited interactions, reinforcing physical and social barriers between the two groups (Frontiersin, 2022).

Perceptions of Insecurity and Economic Impact

Host communities have expressed concerns about increased insecurity and economic burdens associated with the refugee influx. These include fears of rising crime rates and competition for jobs and resources (World Vision, 2023; USIP, 2023). The perception that refugees are responsible for anti-social activities has fueled resentment, despite evidence suggesting that such claims are often exaggerated (Frontiersin, 2022).

Conflict Mitigation Efforts

Addressing these tensions requires comprehensive conflict mitigation strategies that involve local authorities, international organizations, and community leaders. Initiatives aimed at fostering dialogue and understanding between communities are essential to reduce prejudice and build trust (Brac University, 2019; USIP, 2023). Programs that promote joint economic activities and shared community projects can also help bridge divides by creating mutual benefits for both groups.

The tensions between Rohingya refugees and host communities in Cox’s Bazar highlight the challenges of maintaining social cohesion in the face of large-scale displacement. By implementing inclusive policies and promoting positive intergroup interactions, it is possible to mitigate conflict risks and foster a more harmonious coexistence.

Security concerns and social stability

The Rohingya refugee influx into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has heightened security concerns and posed challenges to social stability in the region. This section examines these issues and their implications for both refugees and host communities.

Security Concerns

The security situation in the refugee camps has deteriorated due to the presence of militant groups and criminal gangs. The Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) and rival factions have been involved in violent activities, including killings and abductions, contributing to a pervasive sense of insecurity among the refugees (Refugees International, 2022). Between January and September 2023, over 1,400 serious protection incidents were recorded, including acts of violence by criminal gangs (UNHCR, 2023). These incidents have created an environment of fear and instability within the camps.

The Bangladeshi authorities have responded by increasing the presence of the Armed Police Battalion (APBn) in the camps. However, reports of corruption and abuse by some APBn officers have undermined trust in law enforcement efforts (Refugees International, 2022). Refugees have expressed frustration over the perceived ineffectiveness of security measures and fear being targeted by both criminal elements and law enforcement (Refugees International, 2022).

Social Stability Challenges

The influx of refugees has also impacted social stability in host communities. The significant increase in population density has strained local resources and infrastructure, leading to tensions between refugees and host community members (USIP, 2023). Many host community members perceive that the continued assistance to refugees is disproportionate to their own needs, exacerbating feelings of resentment (USIP, 2023).

These tensions are further fueled by economic pressures such as competition for jobs and rising prices for essential goods. Host community members often view refugees as a burden on local services and resources, which has led to negative perceptions and limited interactions between the two groups (USIP, 2023).

Mitigation Efforts

Addressing these security concerns and social stability challenges requires coordinated efforts from both national authorities and international organizations. Enhancing security measures within the camps through improved coordination among law enforcement agencies is crucial (Refugees International, 2022). Additionally, initiatives that promote dialogue and understanding between refugees and host communities can help mitigate tensions and foster social cohesion (USIP, 2023).

Efforts to improve resource allocation and infrastructure development are also essential to alleviate economic pressures on host communities. By addressing these underlying issues, it is possible to enhance security and promote a more stable coexistence between refugees and host communities.

Health and Education

Strain on healthcare systems

The influx of Rohingya refugees into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, has placed a significant strain on the local healthcare systems, impacting both the refugee and host populations. This section explores these challenges and the efforts being made to address them.

Overburdened Healthcare Facilities

The sudden increase in population has overwhelmed existing healthcare facilities in Cox’s Bazar. The health system, already limited in capacity, has struggled to meet the basic healthcare needs of both refugees and host communities (BRAC JPGSPH, 2019). The influx has led to overcrowded clinics and hospitals, resulting in long wait times and inadequate care for patients suffering from a range of health issues, including infectious diseases, chronic conditions, and malnutrition (NCBI, 2021).

Resource Constraints

Healthcare providers face significant resource constraints, including shortages of medical supplies, personnel, and infrastructure (WHO, 2024). The demand for healthcare services far exceeds the available resources, leading to gaps in service delivery. For instance, there is a notable shortage of primary health centers (PHCs) compared to the number of health posts, which are more accessible but less equipped to handle complex medical cases (NCBI, 2021).

Efforts to Enhance Healthcare Delivery

In response to these challenges, various initiatives have been implemented to enhance healthcare delivery. The World Health Organization (WHO), in collaboration with UNHCR and IOM, has developed a transformative initiative aimed at improving healthcare access for refugees. This initiative includes the establishment of standardized referral systems to streamline patient care and ensure timely access to secondary healthcare services (WHO, 2024).

Moreover, local and international NGOs have been instrumental in setting up additional health facilities within the camps. These efforts aim to decentralize healthcare services and reduce the burden on existing infrastructure by providing more localized care options (BRAC JPGSPH, 2019).

Despite these efforts, challenges remain due to ongoing resource limitations and the unpredictable nature of humanitarian crises. Continued collaboration among stakeholders is essential to sustain improvements in healthcare delivery and ensure that both refugees and host communities receive adequate medical care. Addressing these issues requires not only immediate interventions but also long-term strategies that integrate humanitarian aid with broader development goals.

Educational challenges for refugee and local children

The educational challenges faced by both refugee and local children in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, due to the Rohingya refugee influx are profound and multifaceted. This section explores these challenges and their implications for the affected populations.

Challenges for Rohingya Refugee Children

Rohingya refugee children face significant barriers to accessing quality education. The Bangladesh government has restricted formal education opportunities for these children, allowing only informal education within the camps without any accreditation or use of the national curriculum (Human Rights Watch, 2019). This policy effectively limits their educational development and future opportunities, as they cannot receive recognized certifications or participate in national examinations (Human Rights Watch, 2019).

Despite these restrictions, efforts have been made to provide some form of education through learning centers supported by organizations like UNICEF. These centers offer basic instruction using the Myanmar curriculum, which was introduced in 2020 but delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic (ReliefWeb, 2023). However, the lack of formal recognition and limited resources continue to hinder educational progress for Rohingya children.

Challenges for Local Children

The influx of refugees has also impacted educational opportunities for local children in host communities. The increased population has strained existing educational infrastructure, leading to overcrowded classrooms and insufficient resources (Tandfonline, 2020). Local schools struggle to accommodate both local students and those from refugee backgrounds, often resulting in reduced quality of education for all students involved.

Efforts to Address Educational Challenges

To address these challenges, various initiatives have been implemented. UNICEF and other organizations have established over 3,400 learning centers within the camps to provide informal education to refugee children (UNICEF, 2023). Additionally, efforts are being made to enhance teacher training and capacity development through partnerships with institutions like BRAC University (ReliefWeb, 2023).

For local children, there is a need for investment in expanding educational infrastructure and resources to ensure that they do not face disadvantages due to the increased demand on schools. Community engagement programs have also been developed to foster understanding and cooperation between refugee and host communities regarding educational needs (ReliefWeb, 2023).

The educational challenges faced by both Rohingya refugee and local children in Cox’s Bazar highlight the need for comprehensive strategies that address resource limitations and policy barriers. By improving access to quality education and fostering inclusive learning environments, it is possible to enhance educational outcomes for all children affected by the refugee crisis.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Sustainable environmental management strategies

The environmental impacts of the Rohingya refugee influx into Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, necessitate the development and implementation of sustainable management strategies to mitigate damage and promote ecological resilience. This section outlines key policy implications and recommendations for sustainable environmental management.

Key Challenges

The environmental challenges posed by the refugee influx include deforestation due to shelter construction and fuelwood collection, inadequate waste management and sanitation facilities, strain on water resources leading to groundwater depletion, and increased risks of landslides and flooding due to environmental degradation (ReliefWeb, 2018; UNDP, 2018).

Best Practices

To address these challenges, several best practices have been identified:

1. Integrated Watershed Management: Implementing integrated watershed management can enhance soil and water conservation efforts. This approach involves managing land, water, and related resources in a comprehensive manner to mitigate soil erosion and improve water quality (UNHCR, 2001).
2. Community-Based Waste Management: Establishing community-based waste management programs that involve both refugee and host communities can improve sanitation and reduce environmental impact. These programs should focus on waste segregation, recycling, and safe disposal practices (ReliefWeb, 2018).
3. Reforestation Initiatives: Promoting reforestation and afforestation initiatives is crucial for restoring degraded lands. These efforts not only help in stabilizing soil but also in enhancing biodiversity and carbon sequestration (UNDP, 2018).
4. Sustainable Energy Solutions: Developing sustainable energy solutions such as solar power can reduce reliance on fuelwood, thereby decreasing deforestation rates. Providing improved cooking stoves can also help minimize fuelwood consumption (UNHCR, 2001).

Policy Recommendations

Based on these best practices, the following policy recommendations are proposed:

– Comprehensive Environmental Impact Mitigation Plan: Develop and implement a comprehensive environmental impact mitigation plan that includes active community engagement. This plan should address immediate environmental concerns while promoting long-term sustainability (ReliefWeb, 2018).

– Collaboration for Resource Allocation: Enhance collaboration between humanitarian organizations and local governments to improve resource allocation and infrastructure development. This collaboration is essential for effective implementation of environmental management strategies (UNDP, 2018).

– Educational Programs on Sustainable Resource Management: Promote educational programs targeting both refugees and host communities to raise awareness about sustainable resource management practices. Education can empower communities to participate actively in conservation efforts (UNHCR, 2001).

– Adaptive Management Practices: Encourage adaptive management practices that can evolve based on ongoing assessments of environmental impacts. This flexibility allows for timely adjustments to strategies as conditions change (ReliefWeb, 2018).

By implementing these recommendations, it is possible to mitigate the adverse environmental impacts of the Rohingya refugee influx while promoting sustainable development in Cox’s Bazar.

Social integration and conflict resolution measures

The social integration of Rohingya refugees and host communities in Bangladesh presents significant challenges, with implications for conflict resolution and long-term social cohesion. This section outlines policy implications and recommendations for fostering integration and resolving conflicts.

Current Challenges

The influx of nearly one million Rohingya refugees into Cox’s Bazar has intensified social tensions between refugees and host communities. These tensions arise from competition for resources, perceived inequities in aid distribution, and cultural differences (Frontiers, 2022; USIP, 2023). The lack of formal recognition of the Rohingya as refugees by the Government of Bangladesh limits their rights and complicates efforts to foster integration (Frontiers, 2022).

Policy Implications

1. Promoting Social Cohesion through Dialogue and Interaction: Encouraging dialogue between refugees and host communities is crucial for reducing prejudice and building trust. Initiatives that facilitate regular interaction can help bridge cultural divides and foster mutual understanding (UNHCR, 2022). This includes community events, cultural exchanges, and joint economic activities that promote shared interests.
2. Conflict Resolution Mechanisms: Establishing conflict resolution mechanisms involving trained mediators can address disputes constructively. These mechanisms should be accessible to both communities and focus on resolving issues related to resource allocation, employment opportunities, and social services (UNHCR, 2022).
3. Economic Inclusion Programs: Implementing programs that enhance economic opportunities for both refugees and host communities can alleviate tensions. This includes vocational training, access to microfinance, and support for small businesses that involve participants from both groups (CGD, 2024).
4. Policy Coordination and Support: Effective coordination among government agencies, NGOs, and international organizations is essential to implement integration strategies successfully. Policies should be aligned with the needs of both communities to ensure equitable access to resources and services (ReliefWeb, 2019).

Recommendations

– Strengthening Community-Based Initiatives: Support community-led initiatives that promote social cohesion through collaborative projects such as agricultural cooperatives or shared infrastructure development (UNHCR, 2022).

– Enhancing Legal Frameworks: Advocate for legal reforms that recognize the rights of Rohingya refugees and facilitate their participation in local economies. This includes granting work permits and access to education for refugee children (CGD, 2024).

– Capacity Building for Local Institutions: Invest in capacity-building programs for local institutions to manage integration efforts effectively. This includes training in conflict resolution, cultural sensitivity, and inclusive policy-making (Frontiers, 2022).

By implementing these recommendations, it is possible to foster a more harmonious coexistence between Rohingya refugees and host communities in Bangladesh, contributing to long-term peace and stability.

International cooperation and support

The complex and protracted nature of the Rohingya refugee crisis in Bangladesh necessitates robust international cooperation and support to address both immediate humanitarian needs and long-term solutions. This section outlines the policy implications and recommendations for enhancing international collaboration.

Need for Sustained International Support

The ongoing humanitarian crisis has placed considerable strain on Bangladesh, which hosts nearly one million Rohingya refugees in Cox’s Bazar, the world’s largest refugee settlement (IOM, 2024). The international community must continue to provide substantial financial and logistical support to ensure that both refugees and host communities receive adequate assistance. The 2024 Joint Response Plan, which seeks $852.4 million, underscores the urgent need for sustained funding to address food security, healthcare, education, and livelihood opportunities (ReliefWeb, 2024).

Promoting Equitable Responsibility-Sharing

The Global Compact on Refugees emphasizes the importance of predictable and equitable responsibility-sharing among countries (UNHCR, 2018). This framework provides a blueprint for international cooperation, ensuring that host countries like Bangladesh receive the necessary support to manage the refugee influx effectively. Implementing this framework involves mobilizing resources through global pledging conferences and encouraging more countries to participate in resettlement programs (Refugees International, 2024).

Enhancing Diplomatic Efforts

Diplomatic efforts must focus on addressing the root causes of the Rohingya crisis by engaging with Myanmar to create conditions conducive to safe and voluntary repatriation. This includes applying diplomatic pressure on Myanmar’s military junta to ensure accountability for human rights violations and supporting initiatives that promote peace and stability in the region (Refugees International, 2024).

Recommendations for International Cooperation

1. Increase Funding Commitments: Donor countries should increase their financial contributions to meet the targets set by the Joint Response Plan. This funding is crucial for providing life-saving assistance and supporting long-term development initiatives that benefit both refugees and host communities (ReliefWeb, 2024).
2. Expand Resettlement Opportunities: Countries should offer more resettlement spots for Rohingya refugees to alleviate pressure on Bangladesh and provide refugees with opportunities for a stable future. The United States and other nations are encouraged to enhance their resettlement quotas significantly (Refugees International, 2024).
3. Strengthen Regional Cooperation: Engage regional partners in Southeast Asia to develop coordinated strategies that address both humanitarian needs and security concerns related to the Rohingya crisis. This includes sharing best practices and resources for effective refugee management (IOM, 2024).

By implementing these recommendations, the international community can better support Bangladesh in managing the Rohingya refugee crisis while working towards sustainable solutions for refugees.

CONCLUSION

Summary of key findings

The analysis of the environmental footprint and social implications of the Rohingya refugee influx into Bangladesh has revealed several key findings that highlight the complexity and urgency of the situation.

Environmental Impact

The influx has led to significant environmental degradation in Cox’s Bazar, including deforestation, soil erosion, and strain on water resources. The clearing of forested areas for refugee settlements has exacerbated soil erosion and increased the risk of landslides and flooding, posing serious ecological challenges (UNDP, 2018). The depletion of groundwater resources due to increased demand has further strained the local environment, impacting both refugees and host communities (ReliefWeb, 2018).

Social Implications

The social dynamics between Rohingya refugees and host communities have become increasingly complex. Initially marked by sympathy and support, relations have deteriorated over time due to competition for resources, economic pressures, and cultural differences (Frontiers, 2022). The influx has intensified social tensions, with host communities perceiving an inequitable distribution of aid and opportunities (USIP, 2023).

Economic Impact

Economically, the presence of a large refugee population has led to market instability. The availability of cheap labor has depressed wages for local workers, while increased demand for goods has driven up prices, adversely affecting the host community’s economic stability (Tandfonline, 2020). These economic pressures have exacerbated existing vulnerabilities in the region’s labor market and resource allocation systems.

Educational Challenges

Educational access for Rohingya children remains limited due to policy restrictions that prevent formal schooling. This lack of access to quality education not only hinders the personal development of refugee children but also poses long-term challenges for their integration into society (Human Rights Watch, 2019).

Policy Implications

The findings underscore the need for comprehensive policy responses that address both immediate humanitarian needs and long-term development goals. Sustainable environmental management strategies are essential to mitigate ecological impacts, while initiatives promoting social cohesion and conflict resolution can help ease tensions between communities. International cooperation is crucial to provide adequate support and resources for Bangladesh to manage this crisis effectively.

Addressing the multifaceted challenges posed by the Rohingya refugee influx requires coordinated efforts across environmental, social, economic, and educational domains. By implementing targeted interventions and fostering international collaboration, it is possible to improve conditions for both refugees and host communities in Bangladesh.

Limitations of the study

The study on the environmental footprint and social implications of the Rohingya refugee influx in Bangladesh, while comprehensive, is subject to several limitations that should be acknowledged to provide context for the findings and recommendations.

Data Limitations

One of the primary limitations of this study is the reliance on available secondary data sources, which may not capture the most current conditions or nuanced local variations. Data on environmental impacts, such as deforestation rates and water resource depletion, are often based on estimates and remote sensing analyses that might not fully reflect on-the-ground realities (UNDP, 2018; ReliefWeb, 2018). Additionally, socio-economic data regarding labor market impacts and social dynamics are derived from reports that may not account for all local perspectives or recent developments (Tandfonline, 2020).

Scope of Analysis

The scope of this study is broad, covering multiple dimensions of the refugee crisis, including environmental, social, economic, and educational impacts. While this comprehensive approach provides a holistic view, it also limits the depth of analysis in each specific area. Certain aspects, such as detailed ecological assessments or in-depth ethnographic studies of community interactions, are beyond the scope of this paper and warrant further investigation.

Temporal Constraints

The dynamic nature of the refugee crisis means that conditions can change rapidly. This study captures a snapshot in time, which may not fully represent ongoing developments or future trends. For instance, policy changes or new humanitarian interventions could alter the current landscape significantly after the study period (USIP, 2023).

Cultural and Contextual Factors

Cultural differences and language barriers may have influenced the interpretation of qualitative data gathered from interviews and focus groups. While efforts were made to ensure accurate representation of diverse perspectives, some nuances might have been overlooked due to these challenges (Frontiers, 2022).

Recommendations for Future Research

Future research should aim to address these limitations by incorporating more longitudinal studies that track changes over time and employing mixed-methods approaches to gather both quantitative and qualitative data directly from affected populations. Additionally, engaging with local researchers and stakeholders can enhance the cultural relevance and accuracy of findings.

While this study provides valuable insights into the impacts of the Rohingya refugee influx in Bangladesh, acknowledging its limitations is crucial for interpreting its findings and guiding future research efforts.

Future research directions

The study of the environmental and social implications of the Rohingya refugee influx in Bangladesh highlights several areas for future research that are critical for developing effective policy responses and improving the conditions for both refugees and host communities.

Social Cohesion and Integration

Future research should focus on understanding the dynamics of social cohesion between Rohingya refugees and host communities. There is a need to explore sustainable approaches to foster peaceful coexistence, considering the complex social and cultural interactions (Frontiers, 2022). Research could investigate successful models of integration from other contexts and assess their applicability in Cox’s Bazar, particularly focusing on community-led initiatives that promote dialogue and cooperation.

Longitudinal Environmental Impact Studies

Long-term studies are essential to monitor the environmental changes resulting from the refugee settlements. These studies should employ advanced remote sensing technologies to track deforestation, soil erosion, and water resource depletion over time (UNDP, 2018). Understanding these trends will help in formulating adaptive environmental management strategies that can mitigate negative impacts and promote ecological restoration.

Economic Impacts on Host Communities

Further research is needed to quantify the economic impacts of the refugee influx on local markets, employment, and wages. This includes analyzing how the presence of refugees affects local businesses and labor dynamics over time (ReliefWeb, 2019). Such studies would provide insights into how economic policies can be adjusted to support both refugees and host communities effectively.

Health and Education Access

Investigating the barriers to health care and education for both refugees and host communities is crucial. Future studies should evaluate the effectiveness of current interventions and identify gaps in service delivery (NCBI, 2021). Research could also explore innovative solutions to improve access to quality health care and education, ensuring that both populations can thrive.

International Policy Frameworks

Research should also examine the role of international policy frameworks in addressing the Rohingya crisis. This includes assessing the effectiveness of global compacts on refugees and exploring how international cooperation can be enhanced to support Bangladesh’s efforts in managing the crisis (UNHCR, 2018).

By addressing these research directions, stakeholders can develop more informed policies that not only address immediate humanitarian needs but also contribute to long-term sustainable development for both refugees and host communities.

REFERENCE

1. (2022). Collecting data in the Rohingya camps in Cox’s Bazar.
2. (2019). Solid Waste Management in Rohingya Camps.
3. Anadolu Ajansı. (2023). Timeline: History of Rohingya refugee crisis.
4. BRAC JPGSPH. (2019). Health Care Needs and Health Service Utilization by Rohingya Refugees in Cox’s Bazar.
5. Brac University. (2019). Social Cohesion, resilience and peace building between host population and Rohingya Refugee Community in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh.
6. (2024). Identifying Policies that Help Refugees and Host Communities Thrive.
7. Chowdhury, A. (2019). Socio-economic impacts of the Rohingya influx. The Daily Star.
8. Doctors Without Borders. (2019). Timeline: A visual history of the Rohingya refugee crisis.
9. (2024). Cox’s Bazaar, Bangladesh: Experts assess environmental impacts of Rohingya influx.
10. (2022). Restoring degraded land in Rohingya refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar.
11. Financial Express. (2018). Cox’s Bazar in the wake of Rohingya influx.
12. Friendship News Desk. (2023). Situation Report: Flash Flooding in the Rohingya Camps.
13. (2022). Challenges and dilemmas of social cohesion between the Rohingya and host communities in Bangladesh.
14. Frontiers Publishing Partnerships. (2023). Rohingya influx and host community: A reflection on culture for leading socioeconomic and environmental changes in Bangladesh.
15. Geoenvironmental Disasters. (2022). Analyzing the 27 July 2021 rainfall-induced catastrophic landslide event in the Kutupalong Rohingya Camp in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh.
16. Hossain, S. S. (n.d.). The Impacts of Rohingya Refugee Influx on Bangladesh.
17. Human Rights Watch. (2019). “Are We Not Human?”: Denial of Education for Rohingya Refugee Children in Bangladesh.
18. (2024). Rohingya Response | International Organization for Migration.
19. Islam et al. (2020). Health implications of poor water quality in refugee camps.
20. IWA Publishing. (2023). Water, sanitation and hygiene challenges of forcibly displaced populations: A case study from Rohingya camps.
21. Khan, M. (2018). From solidarity to resistance: Host communities’ evolving response to Rohingya refugees. SpringerOpen.
22. M Ali, T Shahreen – (2024). Climate-resilient water resource management for Rohingya refugee camps. International Journal of Science and Research Archive.
23. McCue, M. (1993). Environmental Responsibility and Rohingya Refugees.
24. MSF South Asia. (2022). Bangladesh: Poor water and sanitation services expose Rohingya community to disease.
25. (2021). The health response to the Rohingya refugee crisis post August 2017: Reflections from two years of health sector coordination in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh.
26. (2023). Assessing the ecological impact of the refugee crisis in Cox’s Bazar.
27. RCC Chicago. (2024). History of the Rohingya.
28. Refugees International. (2024). Hope amid Despair: Finding Solutions for Rohingya in Bangladesh.
29. (2018). Report on Environmental Impact of Rohingya Influx – Executive Summary.
30. (2019). Impacts of the Rohingya Refugee Influx on Host Communities.
31. (2022). Involving Rohingya refugees in reforestation in Bangladesh to reduce disaster risks.
32. (2022). WASH Sector Cox’s Bazar Bangladesh – Solid Waste Management Strategy.
33. (2023). Rohingya Refugee Response in Bangladesh: Education Factsheet.
34. (2024). 2024 Joint Response Plan: Rohingya Humanitarian Crisis (January-December 2024).
35. Shamsudduha et al. (2019). Salinity intrusion impacts on freshwater availability.
36. SPF Foundation. (2024). Six Years of Rohingya Refugee Crisis in Bangladesh.
37. (2021). From solidarity to resistance: Host communities’ evolving response to Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh.
38. (2020). Challenges of providing education for Rohingya children living in Bangladesh.
39. (2020). The impacts and challenges to host country Bangladesh due to mass influx of Rohingya refugees.
40. The Daily Star. (2019). Cox’s Bazar forests in grave danger.
41. The Daily Star. (2019). Rohingya Settlements: 8,000 acres of forests razed.
42. The Daily Star. (2019). Socio-economic impacts of the Rohingya influx.
43. The Daily Star. (2019). Supporting the extreme poor in Cox’s Bazar.
44. The Financial Express. (2023). Impact of Rohingya influx on the host community in BD.
45. (2018). Report on Environmental Impact of Rohingya Influx.
46. (2001). Principles of Sustainable Environmental Management.
47. (2018). The Global Compact on Refugees – UNHCR.
48. (2019). Water quality assessment in Rohingya camps.
49. (2022). Inclusion and peace among refugees and host communities.
50. (2023). Climate Action: Good Practice Cox’s Bazar Bangladesh.
51. (2023). Statement on UNHCR’s protection response in Bangladesh.
52. (2019). Water resource challenges in Rohingya refugee camps.
53. (2023). Against the odds: Children begin the new school year in Rohingya refugee camps.
54. USA for UNHCR. (2024). Rohingya Refugee Crisis Explained.
55. (2023). Conflict Dynamics between Bangladeshi Host Communities and Rohingya Refugees.
56. WASH Sector Cox’s Bazar. (2022). Solid Waste Management Strategy – Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh.
57. (2018). Improving drinking water quality in Rohingya camps.
58. (2024). WHO’s Transformative Initiative Enhances Healthcare for Refugees in Rohingya Camps.
59. World Bank. (2021). Rohingya Refugee Camps and Forest Loss in Cox’s Bazar: An Inquiry Using Remote Sensing and Econometric Approaches.
60. World Vision. (2023). Rohingya refugee crisis: Facts, FAQs, and how to help.