In the Criminogenic Family Fold: Investigating The Predictive Power of Family Management Practices in Understanding Youth Crime in Nairobi and Mombasa Counties, Kenya

In the Criminogenic Family Fold: Investigating the Predictive Power of Family Management Practices in Understanding Youth Crime in Nairobi and Mombasa Counties, Kenya

Lumadede Japheth¹, Dr. Nyachoti W. Otiso², Dr. Charles Mwirigi¹

¹Department 0f Humanities and Social Sciences, Tharaka University, Kenya.

²School of Law, Chuka University

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.807198

Received: 01 July 2024; Accepted: 16 July 2024; Published: 17 August 2024

ABSTRACT

There has been a rise in juvenile delinquency worldwide, particularly in developing countries such as Kenya. Failures in interventions point to the possible inefficacy of the measures, misdiagnosis, or scanty analysis of the security problem. This was precipitated by mixed results and insufficient research. There has been therefore a need to comprehensively confirm, analyze, and document the relationships between various criminogenic situational predictors and juvenile delinquency in Kenya. The purpose of this study thus was to examine various criminogenic situational predictors and juvenile delinquency in Nairobi and Mombasa counties in Kenya. For this purpose, the researcher evaluated the hypothesized predictors on both non-delinquents and delinquents to establish clear relations. The study was anchored on Social Learning and Social Disorganization theories. The study adopted a Concurrent Nested mixed-method Research approach with a qualitative component being embedded in a quantitative Causal-Comparative Research Design. The target population of the study was 2,908,950 juveniles in the two counties. The accessible population was 235,861 respondents, out of which a sample of 400 was drawn, from which the researcher got 360, a response rate of 90%. The researcher drew the sample using a disproportionate stratified random sampling thus ensuring representation of both delinquents and non-delinquents in each county. The delinquent population entailed both delinquents who had committed minor violations and delinquents who had committed serious violations. Delinquents who had committed serious violations were drawn from borstal institutions, while those who had committed minor violations were drawn from the Probation Department. The non-delinquents were drawn from county secondary schools in each of the counties. Random sampling was done using the Excel data analysis tool pack. In addition, 12 respondents were selected purposively from the authorities dealing with children matters, 6 from each county. The total sample size attained was thus 372 respondents. A face-to-face interview questionnaire and an in-depth key informant interview schedule were the main instruments of data collection. Binary logistic regression was conducted on the quantitative data at a 95% confidence interval (CI) and a p-value < 0.05 considered significant with the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26.0 software. Thematic content analysis was conducted on the qualitative data with the help of Max. Qda software. The odds ratio indicates that when holding all other variables constant, a child is 7.2 times more likely to turn out delinquent with poor parental characteristics, 2.3 times more likely to turn out delinquent with poor family management practices, 3 times more likely to turn out delinquent with poor parent-child attachment and 2.2 times more likely to turn out delinquent with poor neighborhood characteristics than turn out non-delinquent. The odds ratio for combined situational predictors indicates that when holding all other variables constant, a child is 67.5 times more likely to turn out delinquent than a non-delinquent with poor situational conditions. Therefore, employing a .05 criterion of statistical significance, the null hypothesis was thus rejected because the findings show a statistically significant predictive relationship between combined situational predictors and juvenile delinquency. The findings will be useful to the government, academia, policy actors as well as parents in developing crime prevention policies, contributing to theory and literature, informing on better family management practices, and informing effective tailoring of relevant social policies respectively.

Keywords: Parental Characteristics, Parental Criminality, Parental Attitudes, Juvenile Delinquency, Criminogenic

INTRODUCTION

The family environment plays a crucial role in shaping juvenile behavior and susceptibility to delinquent activities. Within this context, family management practices emerge as influential factors that can either mitigate or exacerbate the risk of juvenile delinquency (Mwangangi, 2019). However, existing research on family dynamics and their predictive power in understanding juvenile delinquency remains limited, particularly within the urban landscapes of Nairobi and Mombasa counties in Kenya.

Rising trends in juvenile delinquency rates underscore the urgency of investigating the criminogenic potential of family management practices (Field, 2019).

Studies suggest a notable increase in delinquent behavior across Africa, highlighting the need for targeted interventions (Walker &Madden, 2019). Despite this, empirical research focusing on the predictive role of family management practices in Kenyan urban settings remained scant.

This study addresses this gap by examining the influence of family management practices on juvenile delinquency in Nairobi and Mombasa counties. By exploring factors such as monitoring and supervision, family conflicts, child maltreatment, and precocious role entry, this research unravels the complexities of family dynamics and their implications for youth involvement in delinquent behavior. Through a comprehensive analysis, this study endeavors to inform evidence-based strategies for the prevention and intervention of juvenile delinquency in urban Kenyan contexts.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature on family management techniques and adolescent delinquency underscores the importance of parental supervision and monitoring as crucial strategies for mitigating delinquent behavior (Loeber & Farrington, 1998; Steinberg, 2004). Parental supervision involves being aware of a child’s plans and activities, while monitoring encompasses oversight and guidance regarding a child’s behavior and interactions.

Walters (2015) investigated the relationship between maternal presence, parenting beliefs, and child externalizing behavior as predictors of physical violence and delinquency. The study found that increased levels of parental supervision correlated with reduced impulsive delinquent behavior among boys, with the presence of a mother significantly decreasing delinquent behaviors. Paternal supervision also demonstrated a significant decrease in delinquent behavior among daughters.

Li, Gao, and Wang (2023) conducted a cross-country study involving Chinese and American children aged 10-18, focusing on the impact of parenting styles on deviant behaviors. Their findings emphasized the importance of parental monitoring and supervision in preventing delinquency, with parental rejection and neglect contributing to increased delinquency levels.

Yun & Augustine (2023) explored the relationship between parental monitoring, exposure to family violence, and delinquency among adolescents in the United States. Their research indicated that parental monitoring acted as a protective factor against delinquency, while exposure to family violence increased delinquency risk. Exposure to early family violence emerged as a stronger predictor of delinquency than other factors studied.

While these studies offer valuable insights into familial influences on delinquent behavior, limitations exist. Studies like Li et al. (2023) and Doelman et al. (2023) are cross-sectional and focused on specific countries, limiting generalizability. Additionally, factors such as precocious role entry and family conflicts warrant further investigation.

Further research is needed to comprehensively understand the role of family management practices in juvenile delinquency, particularly in diverse cultural contexts like Kenya. Incorporating mixed-method approaches would provide a more nuanced understanding of the influence of child maltreatment, monitoring, supervision, and parental autonomy support on delinquent behavior, ultimately informing more effective intervention strategies.

METHODOLOGY

This study adopted a concurrent-nested mixed-method research design, prioritizing a quantitative approach with a supplementary qualitative component nested within it. It focused on exploring the predictive capacity of household management practices in understanding youth involvement in crime. The research took place in Nairobi and Mombasa Counties, Kenya, selected for their high crime rates and representation of areas affected by juvenile delinquency.

The target population consisted of children aged 15-17 years in Nairobi and Mombasa Counties, totaling around 2,908,950. Stratified random sampling ensured diverse representation from different segments of the population. Sampling involved aiming for a sample size of 400 juveniles for questionnaires and 12 for key informant interviews.

To determine the sample, a formula proposed by Israel (2009) was adopted:

where:

n = N / (1 + N × e²)

N = 235,861

e = 0.05

n = 235,861 / (1 + 235,861 × (0.05)²)

n = 399.3

n= sample size,

N=Target population

e= The error term (0.05).

The sample size of 400 juveniles is distributed as shown in Table 1

Table 1: Showing the Sample size distribution

Disproportionate stratified sampling was utilized, emphasizing borstal institutions and secondary schools. Data collection employed structured face-to-face interview questionnaires and in-depth key informant interview schedules to gather primary data on household management practices and their correlation with youth crime. Piloting was conducted in Kakamega County to refine research instruments, with adjustments made based on the findings. Key informant interviews also contributed to ensuring the validity and reliability of the research instruments.

Data analysis encompassed both descriptive and inferential statistics, including binary logistic regression, to examine quantitative data. Thematic content analysis was applied to qualitative data to derive meaningful insights into household management practices and youth crime.

Ethical considerations were paramount, with clearance obtained and informed consent obtained from participants and their caregivers. Steps were taken to safeguard participants’ privacy, minimize harm, and maintain transparency throughout the research process.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The relationship between the situational predictors and delinquency was tested using Binary logistic regression at α =0.05 level of significance.

Qualitative data analysis was also conducted. A total of 12 Key Informant Interviews were conducted, 6 in each respective region. The data gathered from key informant interviews were analyzed through a thematic approach by the help of Max QDA Software.

Response Rate

A total of 360 responses were recorded for the interview questionnaires representing a response rate of 90%. This percentage was within the required standard criterion of between 80% and 100% used in research (Morton, 2012). This information is presented in the table 3 below.

Table 2: Respondents Response Rate

In addition to the number of children interviewed, all the 12 respondents identified by the researcher for the purpose of Key informant interviews participated in the study producing 100% response rate.

Biodata

This subsection discusses the respondent’s biodata such as county, delinquency done, education background, with whom the child is living with, type of family, number of siblings and birth order. Crosstabulations of biodata against delinquency were also done where necessary to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon under study. These data made it possible to understand the composition of the sample for drawing meaningful conclusions and generalizing findings.

Distribution of Respondents by County

Of the 360 respondents who responded to the interview questionnaires, 55.6% were from Mombasa, while 44.4% were from Nairobi. This points to a higher representation from Mombasa in the complete response rate. This distribution is as shown in the Table 4 below;

Table 3: Distribution of Respondents by County

 Distribution of Respondents by Gender

The analysis of gender distribution of the respondents shows that the number of male respondents was 200 which forms approximately 55.6% of the total number of respondents in both sub counties. This means that there was slightly high male response rate in the study compared to the female respondent. The numbers of girls in conflict with the law is lower than number of boys as shown in table 4. This might imply that there are fewer females who violate the law compared to males which agrees with crime reports (National Crime Research Centre, 2018). This distribution is shown in the Table 6 below;

Table 4: Distribution of Respondents by Gender

Distribution of Respondents by Education Level

Majority of the respondents, 76.9%, have completed their education at the high school level. The cumulative percent also indicates that 12.8% of respondents have no formal schooling, thus 22.8% (rounded up to 23%) have either no formal schooling or primary education.

This finding is still reflected per county since 70.0% of the respondents in Mombasa and 86.3% in Nairobi have completed their education at the high school level. Table 6 presents this information.

Table 5: Distribution of Respondents by Education Level

 Distribution of Respondents by Whom the Children are living with

The largest percentage indicating that a significant portion of the children (60.0%) live with both their mother and father. This implies a situation where the parents are together and jointly responsible for the care and upbringing of the children. A smaller percentage of children (10.6%) live with their fathers alone.

This could indicate situations where the mother is not present in the household, and the father has primary custody or is the sole caregiver. Mother (16.7%): A substantial percentage of children (16.7%) live with their mothers alone. Some children (6.9%) live with a guardian, indicating a scenario where someone other than the biological parents has assumed the responsibility for their care. Another group of children (5.6%) live with their grandparents.

Table 6: Distribution of Respondents by Whom the Children are living with

In regard to living arrangements of delinquents and non-delinquents, non-delinquents seem to have a slightly higher percentage of living with both parents compared to delinquents. This might suggest a potential correlation between intact family structures and reduced likelihood of delinquency. Non-delinquents also had a higher percentage of living with their mothers compared to delinquents. This could indicate a potential protective factor associated with maternal presence. Delinquents show a significantly higher percentage of living with their fathers compared to non-delinquents.

These findings align with a 2022 Swedish study, which revealed that, in comparison to adolescents residing with both a mother and father, delinquent behavior was more prevalent among those living with a single father (incident rate ratio [IRR] 1.898), compared to those living with a single mother (IRR 1.661), a father and stepmother (IRR 1.606), or a mother and stepfather (IRR 2.044) (PLOS, 2022).

The data suggests that family structure and living arrangements play a role in juvenile delinquency. Living with both parents appears to be associated with lower delinquency rates, while living with the father or grand parents may contribute to an increased likelihood of delinquency. Figure 2 below presents this information clearly.

Figure 2: Distribution of Respondents by Whom the Children are living with

Distribution of Respondents by Family Structure

In regard to whether the children come from Polygamous or monogamous families, slightly over half of the children (53.10%) come from monogamous family structures while (46.90%) come from polygamous family structures.

The get more insights into the family structures, specifically comparing whether delinquents and non-delinquents come from monogamous or polygamous families, a cross tabulation was done. Delinquents showed a significantly higher percentage (62.70%) of coming from polygamous families compared to non-delinquents (37.30%). This points towards a potential association between polygamous family structures and a higher likelihood of juvenile delinquency. This agrees with research conducted by Denga (1981) involving 100 families and 200 delinquents, the findings revealed a higher incidence of juvenile delinquency in polygamous families compared to monogamous ones.

Distribution of Respondents by Birth Order

The respondents’ birth order distribution revealed that 24.90% identified as first-born, 38.10% as mid-born, and 37.00% as last-born. Non-delinquents had a higher representation among first-born individuals (31.00%) compared to delinquents (18.80%). This suggests a potential association between being a first-born and a reduced likelihood of engaging in delinquent behavior. Notably, the last-born individuals are more prevalent among delinquents (44.40%) compared to non-delinquents (29.50%). This suggests a potential association between being the last-born and an increased likelihood of engaging in delinquent behavior.These results partly agree with common claims that propose a 33% to 33% higher likelihood of delinquent behaviors among ‘middle children’ compared to first-borns and a 20% higher likelihood of such behaviors among last-born children compared to first-borns, and also partly contradict common claims that ‘middle children’ are the most likely to be delinquent (Breining, 2020).

Figure 5: Distribution of Respondents by Birth Order

Normality Test

To test the normality of the variables the Kolmogorov-Smirnov^a   was used and the p-values (Sig.) were very low (0.00) which is less that the critical value of 0.05, which typically indicates that the data significantly deviates from a normal distribution. The table 6 below summarizes this information.

Table 7: Tests of Normality for Variables

H02: There is No Statistically Significant Predictive Relationship Between Family Management Practices and Juvenile Delinquency in Nairobi and Mombasa Counties.

The researcher tested the null hypothesis that there is no statistically significant predictive relationship between family management practices and juvenile delinquency in Nairobi and Mombasa counties. Respondents were asked to fill questionnaire regarding the relationship between family management practices and juvenile delinquency. Questions in regard to family management practices were asked for instance, whether their parents/caregivers made or makes them keep away from anything that could be dangerous, their parents/caregivers have clear rules in the house their parents or legal guardians knew or know about their free time activities, their parents kept or keep a close watch on me, their parents/caregivers have met their friends, their parents are people who take action if children don’t follow the rules, as well as whether their parent/caregiver (s) warned them about misbehavior. To gauge whether they come from families with conflict, they were asked whether their family has a history of violence or physical abuse in the past, they argue about the same things in their family over and over again, and whether their parents quarrel frequently. To gauge if they have experienced child maltreatment in their families the children were asked whether their parent or another adult in the household often swore at them, insulted them, or humiliated them. They were also asked whether their parents/caregivers often pushed, grabbed, slapped, or had something thrown at them, whether any adult or person at least 5 years older than them has ever touched or fondled them or had them touch their body in a sexual way, or has ever attempted or actually had oral, anal, or vaginal intercourse with them. They were also asked how often they felt that they didn’t have enough to eat, how often they felt that no one in their family loved them or thought that they were not important or special. To gauge if they had been assigned adult roles while still children (precocious role entry) they were asked if they were often instructed to babysit or cook for their siblings, if they were often forced to skip school to take care of their siblings, if they were often instructed to do chores while their siblings were playing, and if they were often instructed to work in order to earn money for family expenses.

In regard to monitoring and supervision most respondents strongly agree or agree that their parents/caregivers make them or made them keep away from anything that could be dangerous (86.7% combined). A substantial portion of respondents agree or strongly agree that their parents/caregivers have clear rules in the house (79.1% combined). A considerable number of respondents indicate that their parents or legal guardians knew or know about their free time activities (61.4% combined). Responses are evenly distributed across the agree and strongly agree categories, indicating that a substantial proportion of participants feel their parents kept or keep a close watch on them (72.2% combined). A majority of respondents agree or strongly agree that their parents/caregivers have met their friends (68.4% combined). A high percentage of respondents (77.7% combined) also believe that their parents are people who will act if they don’t follow the rules.

Table 8: Monitoring and Supervision

To be sure that the differences in the findings observed on monitoring and supervision criminality are not just by chance, the researcher tested the hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference on monitoring and supervision score between delinquents and non-delinquents. A Mann-Whitney U test was conducted to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between the score of monitoring and supervision between delinquents and non-delinquents. Results of the analysis indicated that there was a difference U=10057.5, z = -6.083, p < .05, with a medium effect of r = 0.32 with delinquents scoring higher in monitoring and supervision (median=2.17, N=160), compared to non-delinquents (median=1.83, N=200). The comparative analysis thus highlights distinct differences in monitoring and supervision between delinquents and non-delinquents.

In the quest to delve deeper into the intricate relationship between monitoring, supervision, and juvenile delinquency, the researcher actively engaged with relevant stakeholders and authorities. Through extensive interviews, the stakeholders provided nuanced perspectives, shedding light on the impact of parental monitoring and supervision on a child’s behavioral trajectory, especially within the context of criminal behavior. There was a general consensus among participants on the pivotal role of monitoring and supervision in effective family management. The unanimous agreement among participants highlights the shared understanding that the absence of adequate supervision creates an environment conducive to delinquency mainly because children are not deterred from being deviant when they should be. The absence of adequate supervision was thus unanimously acknowledged as creating an environment conducive to delinquency. Notably, respondents emphasized that the reinforcement of good behavior and the correction of wrongdoing which are pivotal in shaping a child’s behavior may be lacking when there is inadequate monitoring and supervision. Stakeholders highlighted that consistent and appropriate parental supervision plays a crucial role in reducing the likelihood of children engaging in delinquent behaviors especially in the current onset of predatory technological influences. They also mentioned that despite supervision is a mediating factor on the influence of family structure on behavioral outcomes, emphasizing further that children experiencing consistent, appropriate supervision are less likely to engage in delinquent behaviors even if they come from single parent families or broken families. Conversely, insufficient supervision exposes them to risky activities and association with delinquent peers, fostering unsupervised activities, substance experimentation, and criminal behaviors, even if they come from families with both parents. To address this the respondents suggested targeted interventions such as community-based programs, parenting workshops, and neighborhood watch initiatives were recommended. For instance, community-based programs could involve regular check-ins on children’s activities, fostering a sense of collective responsibility for their well-being.

The analysis of interviews further revealed the critical importance of parental guidance in steering children away from potentially dangerous situations. They mentioned practical examples of this concept which include instances such as parents actively educating their children about the potential dangers of engaging in risky behaviors or the consequences of associating with delinquent peers. The absence of such guidance was shown to expose children to increased vulnerability, significantly contributing to juvenile delinquency. For instance, instances where parents fail to instill an awareness of potential dangers of involvement in deviant acts such as trespassing, damaging people’s property or neglect to establish clear guidelines on arriving at home in the evenings, interactions with strangers and resolution of conflicts expose children to increased vulnerability. This underscores the need for interventions that equip parents with the tools to instill awareness and guide their children away from potential risks.

Respondents also highlighted the significance of establishing clear parental rules within the household. Practical examples of this involve families with explicit guidelines on curfews, responsibilities, and consequences for rule violations. The presence of such rules was universally acknowledged as contributing to a structured environment that deters delinquent behavior. Conversely, the absence of explicit guidelines fosters an environment conducive to delinquency. The enforcement of rules, as evidenced by parents taking corrective action when their children deviate from established norms, was identified as a key indicator of effective parental monitoring and supervision.

Furthermore, stakeholders emphasized the importance of parents’ awareness of their children’s free time activities. Practical examples could include parents actively engaging in conversations with their children about their hobbies, interests, and the friends they spend time with. The thematic analysis also unveiled factors influencing parental knowledge, including communication patterns and the role of trust between parents and juveniles. Lack of awareness was identified as a significant factor contributing to delinquent behavior, suggesting interventions aimed at encouraging open communication and building trust between parents and children.

Proactive practices such as keeping a close watch on children and being acquainted with their friends, emerged as a crucial strategy impacting juvenile behavior. Respondents stressed the importance of parents being acquainted with their children’s friends, emphasizing that this knowledge is a crucial aspect of effective monitoring. Practical examples include parents actively participating in their children’s social circles, organizing gatherings, or maintaining open lines of communication with other parents. The respondents’ perspectives delved into the dynamics of parent-child discussions about friendships, highlighting the substantial influence of parental involvement in these relationships on juvenile behavior.

Recommendations derived from these findings encompass multifaceted approaches to address nuanced aspects of effective parental monitoring. Implementing parental education programs was highlighted as essential, equipping parents with tools and skills through communication strategies, rule-setting, and trust-building. Practical examples of such programs could involve simulated scenarios, role-playing, and culturally sensitive content to ensure relevance across diverse family contexts.

Empowering parents to be actively involved in their children’s lives is fundamental. Interventions aiming to enhance communication, build trust, and provide resources to overcome challenges related to monitoring were recommended. Practical examples of empowerment initiatives could include support groups, where parents share experiences and collectively develop strategies. Parenting workshops could provide a structured environment for skill-building and mutual support.

In the context of technological advancements, leveraging technology was identified as an effective strategy for enhancing parental monitoring. Practical examples include educational campaigns guiding parents in utilizing digital tools, such as parental control apps and location-tracking features on smartphones. However, the findings underscored the importance of approaching technology as a complementary tool rather than a substitute for direct parental involvement, encouraging a balanced and informed use of digital resources.

In conclusion, the qualitative analysis of parental monitoring and supervision, informed by respondent perspectives, provides a comprehensive exploration of this crucial aspect in shaping juvenile behavior. The consensus on the impact of monitoring and supervision serves as a strong foundation for recommendations, emphasizing the need for tailored parental education programs, empowerment initiatives, and strategic use of technology. These insights contribute to the discourse on effective interventions to mitigate the risk of juvenile delinquency, highlighting the importance of proactive and engaged parenting in contemporary society. The following statements from the stakeholders illustrate these assertions:

Both aspects of supervision and monitoring are important. If children are not adequately monitored it is not okay. The parent doesn’t ensure the child has done the homework etc. Too much monitoring is also bad.  The child will be uncomfortable in turn making them seek to join groups that will encourage them to do the wrong things. (Stakeholder 6, Nairobi)

Yes, supervision and monitoring are very crucial, because the child is not supervised, they may be doing the wrong thing but no person to correct them (Stakeholder 6, Nairobi)

Yes, the child will not be able to know what is to be done and what not to do. The dynamics of parental supervision and monitoring are critical in shaping a child’s development, and finding the right balance is key. Inadequate monitoring can leave children without essential guidance, such as ensuring the completion of homework, which is pivotal to their educational progress and personal responsibility. On the other hand, excessive monitoring poses its own set of challenges. When a child feels suffocated by constant scrutiny, it can create discomfort, potentially driving them to seek solace in peer groups that may influence them towards delinquent behaviors. The desire for autonomy may lead them to gravitate towards associations that counteract the perceived overbearing control at home (Stakeholder 3, Nairobi).

It is important to have a balanced approach to supervision and monitoring. Proper supervision and monitoring involve providing guidance without stifling independence, ensuring a child’s needs are met while also allowing them the space to develop their own decision-making skills. When a parent is overly strict in their monitoring. The child, feeling stifled and unable to express themselves freely, may be driven to find consolation in groups that seemingly offer an escape from stringent parental oversight. (Stakeholder 3, Nairobi).

These results are in agreement with the findings from a study by Low, Tan, Nainee, Viapude, &Kailsan(2018) that focused on Malaysian juvenile offenders in a study to determine the impact of parental surveillance and peer rejection on antisocial behavior. 360 young offenders from three residential juvenile rehabilitation facilities were involved in the study; (Tunas Bakti Schools; TBS). The results showed that antisocial conduct differed by gender and that there was a strong correlation between antisocial behavior, and inadequate parental supervision. Parental supervision and peer rejection are the main causes of anti-social behavior among young offenders. The study highlighted the value of implementing proactive parental monitoring measures.

These results are also in agreement with the findings from a study by Vaughan, Speck, Frick, Robertson, Ray, Thornton, & Cauffman (2022) who undertook a longitudinal study to determine the parental correlations with delinquent peer affiliation, picking up on the hypothesis that insufficient parental supervision is a major risk factor for linking adolescents with deviant behaviors.

In regard to family conflicts, a significant portion of respondents disagree or strongly disagree that there is a family history of violence or physical abuse in their past (58.6% combined). A substantial number of respondents agree or strongly agree that they argue about the same things in their family over and over again (45.3% combined). The majority of respondents disagree or strongly disagree that their parents quarrel frequently (50.2% combined).

Table 9: Family conflicts

To be sure that the differences in the findings observed on family conflicts are not just by chance, the researcher tested the hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference on the family conflicts score between delinquents and non-delinquents. A Mann-Whitney U test was conducted to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between the score of family conflicts between delinquents and non-delinquents.

Results of the analysis indicated that there was a difference U=11435.0, z = -4.694, p < .05, with a small effect of r = 0.24 with delinquents scoring higher in family conflicts (median=2.33, N=160), compared to non-delinquents (median=2.00, N=200). The comparative analysis thus highlights distinct differences in family conflicts between delinquents and non-delinquents.

In an effort to gain a deeper comprehension of the connection between family conflicts and juvenile delinquency, the researcher consulted with relevant stakeholders and authorities. All parties expressed the view that family conflicts play a fundamental role in shaping a child’s behavioral path, particularly within the realm of criminal activities. The intricate viewpoints offered by the child matters stakeholders interviewed illuminated the diverse ways in which family conflicts impact juvenile delinquency. The disruption caused by conflicts within the family unit were said to have lasting effects on a child’s mental well-being and behavioral choices. Some of the respondents stated that these children raised in families with a lot of conflict are even more likely to use drugs and join gangs to find peace which consequently expose them to criminality.

The insights garnered from officers and respondents shed light on various aspects of this complex relationship, guiding us towards the root causes such as the recognition of intergenerational transmission of violent tendencies within families which highlights the urgency of understanding specific violent tendencies engaged in by both parents and their influence on the development of antisocial behavior in children. Through further analysis of interview responses, it is clear that history of violence within the family is intergenerationally transmitted. They also reported that the contributing factors to a family history of violence may include societal norms or unresolved trauma and impact on the psychological and emotional well-being of juveniles is the grave.

The analysis further delves into the disruptive role of repetitive arguments within the family, shedding light on the stressors that may contribute to juvenile delinquency. They reported that the triggers of these arguments and how family members cope with conflict is essential for developing interventions that address underlying issues. The focus on the nature and subjects of recurring family arguments provides a roadmap for identifying potential sources of tension, allowing for the creation of effective interventions that go beyond surface-level conflict resolution. They reported that there is a link between frequent arguments and violence, unhappiness, lack of warmth and general lack of attachment which negatively affects the child who might later seek consolation in antisocial activities or among delinquent peers. More so if the arguments are parental quarrels, as reported by the counsellors. Parental quarrels also emerged as a significant criminogenic contributor, impacting the overall well-being of juveniles. Young individuals perceive and internalize aggressive behaviors witnessed within the family and gradually adopt violent or aggressive conduct. The frequency and intensity of these quarrels potentially influence delinquent behavior. Identifying factors contributing to such conflicts, like communication breakdowns or financial stress, is crucial for crafting interventions that tackle the root causes. In-depth family counseling, financial literacy programs, and community-based support services are potential avenues for intervention.

The respondents said that family conflicts have profound consequences on the emotional and psychological well-being of juveniles. Witnessing violence or being exposed to frequent arguments can lead to heightened stress levels, anxiety, and a sense of insecurity. This emotional toll underscores the urgency of implementing mental health support for juveniles in schools as part of comprehensive interventions. Counseling services, support groups, and access to mental health professionals can create a safe space for juveniles to cope with the impact of family conflicts, contributing to their overall well-being and resilience.

Moreover, the thematic analysis suggests that family conflicts may extend beyond the household, influencing the behavior of juveniles in their interactions with peers and the community. Perception and internalization of these aggressive behaviors witnessed within the family and gradually adopted may make the child to act in a violent or aggressive manner towards his peers. Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing interventions that address the broader repercussions of family conflicts. Community-based conflict resolution programs and peer support initiatives can contribute to creating a more harmonious social environment for juveniles, reducing the risk of involvement in delinquent activities.

In light of these findings, there are a few recommendations targeted towards breaking the cycle of family conflicts and their impact on juveniles. Family counseling and support services are identified as crucial components, focusing on providing resources for families to navigate conflicts, improving communication patterns, and fostering healthier dynamics. Collaborative efforts between mental health professionals, social services, and community organizations are envisioned to contribute to breaking the cycle of family conflicts.

Educational programs centered on conflict resolution are recognized as essential for both parents and juveniles. These interventions aim to provide families with tools and strategies for effective communication, negotiation, and resolution of conflicts. School-based programs, community workshops, and parenting education initiatives are suggested avenues for creating a more harmonious family environment that reduces the risk of juvenile delinquency.

Given the emotional and psychological consequences of family conflicts, mental health support for juveniles is identified as crucial. Interventions encompass counseling services, support groups, and access to mental health professionals. Creating a safe space for juveniles to express their feelings and cope with the impact of family conflicts is acknowledged as contributing to their overall well-being and resilience.

In conclusion, the qualitative analysis of family conflicts and their implications for juvenile delinquency, informed by respondent perspectives, provides a rich tapestry of insights. The findings not only underscore the pervasive impact of family conflicts on juvenile behavior but also offer actionable recommendations for targeted interventions. The following statements from the stakeholders illustrate these assertions:

There is a link between family conflicts and delinquency. In abusive families, children may be indirectly influenced in violent ways, shaping their understanding of conflict resolution. Alternatively, faced with a hostile environment, children might internalize their emotions, closing themselves off from healthy communication and emotional expression. Moreover, the repercussions of family conflicts extend beyond the immediate experiences of abuse. Bitterness between parents can manifest in a neglect of the child’s emotional needs, leaving them without the necessary support to navigate the complexities of their feelings. The absence of emotional care and understanding within the family unit can lead to a sense of isolation for the child, depriving them of a crucial sense of belonging.(Stakeholder 2, Nairobi)

It affects because the child will lack a family figure to guide them on best behaviors due to the consequences of family conflicts like parental separation death or divorce. In these instances, the child not only grapples with the emotional toll of such significant life changes but also faces the loss of a familial figure who traditionally guides them toward positive behaviors. A situation where parents separate or divorce due to ongoing conflicts. The child, caught in the crossfire, may experience feelings of abandonment, confusion, or resentment. Without a stable family structure, the child lacks a consistent figure to provide guidance on appropriate behaviors. (Stakeholder 4, Nairobi)

Yes, if affects if the child ever sees conflict at home, parents are always quarreling, the child will feel uncomfortable staying there. They may decide to go to the streets or move to neighbor’s families where they will find comfort and peace of mind. (Stakeholder 5, Mombasa)

Yes, it does; family conflicts may cause death, separation, job loss, and many worse things when a family is in constant conflict, the children may be psychologically tortured hence leading to unlawful practices. When the conflict leads to separation. The child may engage in unlawful activity, such as stealing to cater for the losses caused by the conflict (Stakeholder 6, Mombasa)

Family conflicts have also been identified as a significant contributing factor to the development of juvenile delinquency by several studies. A study by Eiden and colleagues (2008) examined the relationship between inter-parental conflict and delinquency among adolescents. They assessed the influence of inter-parental conflict on delinquency by collecting data from parents, adolescents, and teachers. The results indicated that higher levels of inter-parental conflict were associated with higher levels of delinquency in adolescents. This suggests that unresolved conflicts between parents can have a negative influence on the behavior of adolescents, thus in agreement with the findings of this study.

A study by Liu, De Li, Zhang, & Xia (2020) was carried out in China to determine the relationship between family conflicts and the occurrence of adolescent delinquency. 2,496 adolescents were involved in the study, which evaluated marriage discords and its relationship to incidents of delinquency that were recorded across China. The study found that, in reality, there was a strong positive association between family conflicts and delinquency rates, with mental health issues and parental attachment serving as confounding variables.

In regard to child maltreatment a significant number of respondents disagree or strongly disagree that their parent or another adult in the household often swore at them, insulted them, or humiliated them (52.7% combined). Responses are fairly evenly distributed across the agreement levels, indicating mixed experiences regarding physical abuse within the family. A small but significant proportion of respondents’ report experiences of sexual touching or fondling by an adult or person at least 5 years older than them (15.5% combined). A relatively small proportion of respondents’ report experiences of attempted or actual oral, anal, or vaginal intercourse by an adult or person at least 5 years older than them (10.0% combined). A notable portion of respondents report experiencing situations where they often felt they didn’t have enough to eat, had to wear dirty clothes, and had no one to protect them (14.4% combined). Additionally, a significant percentage report feeling unloved or unimportant in their family (21.8% combined).

Table 10: Child Maltreatment

To be sure that the differences in the findings observed on child maltreatment are not just by chance, the researcher tested the hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference on the child maltreatment score between delinquents and non-delinquents. A Mann-Whitney U test was conducted to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between the score of child maltreatment between delinquents and non-delinquents. Results of the analysis indicated that there was a difference U=9656.0, z = -6.502, p < .05, with a medium effect of r = 0.34 with delinquents scoring higher in child maltreatment (median=2.17, N=160), compared to non-delinquents (median=1.50, N=200). The comparative analysis thus highlights distinct differences in child maltreatment between delinquents and non-delinquents.

To deepen our understanding of the connection between child maltreatment and juvenile delinquency, the researcher sought perspectives from relevant stakeholders and authorities. All participants emphasized that instances of child maltreatment serve as the foundation for molding a child’s behavioral trajectory, especially in the context of criminal behavior. The detailed insights provided by authorities specializing in children’s issues, who were interviewed, shed light on the intricate ways in which child maltreatment impacts juvenile delinquency. Child maltreatment as a factor influencing delinquency opens avenues for understanding the relationship between abusive or neglectful behaviors and subsequent criminal tendencies in children unraveling the psychological mechanisms through which maltreatment leads to delinquency. The respondents stated that children who are maltreated are more likely to be delinquents. Some of the respondents asserted that lack of peace, comfort and love from the family exposes children to delinquent behavior in order to suppress the trauma that come with maltreatment. The respondents also noted that children who are maltreated lack the mental capacity to make appropriate decisions that may prevent them from engaging in crimes.

Child maltreatment often manifests through verbal and physical abuse within the household. The responses emphasized the effect of the frequency of exposure and the nature of these abuses, shedding light on the dynamics contributing to delinquent behavior among youth. The respondents revealed the profound impact of constant insults, humiliation, and physical violence on the emotional and psychological well-being of young individuals.

Sexual abuse, identified as a particularly grave form of child maltreatment, was also deeply explored through the qualitative interviews. They mentioned the psychological consequences of the experiences on juveniles who have encountered sexual abuse including constant anxiety, mistrust, lack of empathy and aggressive sexual and non-sexual tendencies and potential which can be linked to juvenile delinquency. Understanding the context, emotional toll, and factors contributing to sexual abuse within families or communities was underscored as crucial for crafting interventions that address the root causes and support survivors.

Neglect, covering issues like insufficient food, inadequate clothing, and emotional deprivation, was also recognized as a significant aspect of child maltreatment. The interviews explored the lived experiences of juveniles who have faced neglect, shedding light on their daily struggles and feelings of unimportance. The borstal institution officers in Mombasa mentioned the cases of street children who later join gangs. They also mentioned that addressing the economic and social factors contributing to neglect is vital for interventions that address not only immediate consequences but also broader issues of poverty and familial dysfunction that may contribute to juvenile delinquency.

Child maltreatment’s far-reaching consequences on the development and behavior of juveniles such as stress, trauma, and emotional instability were underscored. It was unanimously reported that juveniles experiencing maltreatment often develop maladaptive coping mechanisms, including engagement in delinquent behaviors as a means of survival or escape. The responses also revealed child maltreatment’s impact on social relationships, potentially leading to strained interactions with peers and authority figures, and young individuals’ ability to form healthy relationships, which ultimately contributes to their involvement in delinquent activities. These consequences tie up to the mental health of the child, leading to more complicated psychological issues such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The interview responses also suggested interventions focused on improving accessible mental health services, counseling support, and community-based initiatives are essential components of interventions aimed at mitigating the mental health consequences of maltreatment and reducing the likelihood of delinquency. The following statements from the stakeholders illustrate these assertions:

It is there. if you mistreat your child, they may be pushed to join bad company. When subjected to mistreatment, children find themselves pushed into seeking solace and companionship in undesirable circles, such as gangs. The pursuit of peace and comfort, elusive within their own households, can lead them to explore alternatives that unfortunately expose them to criminal activities. (Stakeholder 2, Nairobi)

Yes. It can lead to mental disturbance in the child. Some children are psychologically tortured they are mentally disturbed and difficult to cope with stressors in their lives. This inability to cope with stress in their lives can contribute to their involvement in criminal behaviors.(Stakeholder1, Mombasa)

There is when a child is mistreated in his family he may conduct delinquency. For instance, when a child is denied basic needs such as food he may steal to feed himself/herself. (Stakeholder 5, Mombasa)

There are quite a number where the father or close relative abused them. These children might as well be sexually abusive, or they will just be quiet. the distressing scenario where a father or close relative becomes an agent of abuse, perpetuating an environment of harm. In such cases, the absence of intervention or support from the mother exacerbates the child’s vulnerability. (Stakeholder 4, Nairobi)

The impacts of early exposure to violence among adolescents and the accompanying escape behaviors were also studied by Haynie et al. (2009). The study employed a descriptive survey design to identify the related effects of exposing children to violence in either form—direct or indirect drawing a sample of 11,949 school-aged adolescents in the US. According to the study, whether teenagers were subjected to direct or indirect violence, departure behaviors were severe and included running away from home, quitting school, teenage pregnancies, suicide attempts, and juvenile criminality.

A critical analysis of therapies for girls’ delinquency that take gender into account was done by Kerig and Schindler (2013). The authors found that higher rates of delinquency in girls were related to child abuse, mental health issues, and family factors like parental substance abuse, parental rejection, and a lack of parental supervision. They also discovered that these factors were associated with high rates of delinquency in boys.

Hamby and Grych (2012) performed a critical analysis of the theoretical and empirical underpinnings of various forms of interpersonal violence and abuse and found a link between early abuse and later involvement in crime and delinquency. According to these findings, child abuse may play a significant role in the emergence of juvenile delinquency.

In regard to precocious role entry, a significant portion of respondents agree or strongly agree that they were often instructed to babysit or cook for their siblings (32.5% combined). A notable percentage of respondents disagree or strongly disagree that they were often forced to skip school to take care of their siblings (66.9% combined). A significant portion of respondents agree or strongly agree that they were often instructed to do chores while their siblings were playing (27.8% combined). A substantial percentage of respondents disagree or strongly disagree that they were often instructed to work in order to earn money for family expenses (71.8% combined).

Table 11: Precocious Role Entry

To be sure that the differences in the findings observed on precocious role entry are not just by chance, the researcher tested the hypothesis that there is no statistically significant difference on the precocious role entry score between delinquents and non-delinquents. A Mann-Whitney U test was conducted to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between the score of precocious role entry between delinquents and non-delinquents. Results of the analysis indicated that there was a difference U=13266.0, z = -2.817, p < .05, with a small effect of r = 0.14 with delinquents scoring higher in precocious role entry (median=2.00, N=160), compared to non-delinquents (median=1.75, N=200). The comparative analysis thus highlights distinct differences in precocious role entry between delinquents and non-delinquents’ between delinquents and non-delinquents.

To get a better understanding on the relationship between precocious role entry and juvenile delinquency, the researcher sought answers from the relevant stakeholders and authorities. They all posited that precocious role entry are foundational in shaping a child’s behavioral trajectory, especially in the context of criminality. The nuanced perspectives provided by the law enforcement officers interviewed shed light on the multifaceted ways in which assigning children adult responsibilities influence juvenile delinquency. The thematic analysis of respondents’ perspectives underscores the significant impact of precocious role entry on children, particularly those burdened with caregiving responsibilities within families especially at the expense of the time when they should be left to. The findings shed light on the complexities of children forced into roles beyond their years, unraveling the implications for their educational, social, and emotional well-being. Most respondents opined that it is important not to take the childhood from the child.

Children entrusted with caregiving duties, such as babysitting or cooking are burdened by such responsibilities and it takes a toll on their educational, social, and emotional development. A deeper understanding of the factors leading to the imposition of caregiving duties, whether due to parental work demands or family structure, is crucial for crafting family targeted interventions.

The forced absence of children from school for familial duties or house chores emerges as a key indicator of precocious role entry. The reasons behind these forced school absences are targeted to benefit the parent at the expense of the child, with detrimental consequences on the children’s education and overall development. The respondents also mentioned that children instructed to work at an early age to contribute to family expenses undergo precocious role entry into income-generating activities which affects their development and puts a lot of adult pressure on them. They suggested that interventions should aim to create economic opportunities for families without compromising the educational and developmental needs of children. Balancing economic necessities with the imperative of continued education is crucial for breaking the cycle of precocious role entry especially in poor families and single parent families.

The findings highlighted the potential far-reaching consequences of precocious role entry on the development and behavior of juveniles, such as educational disruption resulting from forced school absences and early engagement in caregiving or income-generating activities which have profound effects on a child’s academic performance, aspirations, and overall self-worth. This deprives children of a normative childhood experience, potentially leading to psychological consequences. Children burdened with caregiving or work responsibilities may experience social isolation, missing out on essential peer interactions and socialization opportunities. The impact of social isolation on a child’s social development, interpersonal skills, and sense of belonging within their peer group is detrimental to his or her development.

In conclusion, the thematic analysis of precocious role entry emphasizes the need for targeted interventions that prioritize education, address familial needs, fair assignment of chores and fostering a supportive environment for the affected children. The following statements from the stakeholders illustrate these assertions:

It affects. It is important to not take the childhood from the child. When children are assigned adult roles, it is unfair. Some children are assigned roles of income generation or caregiving when they should be attending school and child duties. The children deserve to play just like other children. Excessive house chores also take away time for play which is detrimental to a child’s development. For example, a child entrusted with caregiving duties or income-generating responsibilities may find their days consumed by laborious tasks, leaving little room for unstructured play crucial to their well-being. (Stakeholder 3, Nairobi)

 Assigning children roles typically reserved for adults, such as income generation or caregiving, represents an unjust imposition on their lives. This practice not only deprives them of the essential right to education but also undermines their ability to engage in activities essential for their emotional and social development. Consider a scenario where children, instead of attending school and participating in age-appropriate activities, find themselves burdened with the weight of adult responsibilities. This premature entry into the complexities of adulthood can lead to a distorted understanding of their own capabilities and a truncation of their growth potential. (Stakeholder 6, Mombasa)

There indeed an impact of prematurely assigning children adult roles extends beyond a mere disruption—it fundamentally robs them of their rightful childhood. It is imperative to recognize the detrimental consequences that arise when children, instead of enjoying the innocence of their youth, are burdened with responsibilities that far exceed their developmental capacities. Moreover, the right to play is a cornerstone of childhood, fostering creativity, social skills, and emotional resilience. Excessive household chores, often thrust upon children assuming adult roles, not only infringe upon their playtime but also hinder their overall development. (Stakeholder 1, Mombasa)

Precocious role-taking, when duties within the family (caregiving, making decisions, and solving problems) that would typically be filled by adults are instead taken by children, in the family is among the significant variables in the development of delinquency as examined by Ryan et al. (2005).

In their 1982 study, Gove and Crutchfield examined how parental and adolescent traits affected the prevalence of delinquency and depression. The study’s findings indicated that precocious duties in the family were linked to a higher likelihood of delinquency and despair. The findings specifically showed that precocious roles in the family were linked to greater rates of delinquency and sadness in adolescent youth. According to this, precocious duties may raise the likelihood of delinquency and depression because of the stress and lack of support they may cause.

A meta-analysis of experimental trials of diversion programs for young offenders was carried out by Schwalbe, Gearing, MacKenzie, and Jarjoura (2012). The study’s findings demonstrated a link between early family responsibilities and a higher chance of recidivism. This shows that premature positions may increase the probability of recidivism because of the strain and lack of support they can cause. The majority of the studies on precocious positions in the family point to an increased likelihood of criminal conduct, depression, recidivism, and delinquency when these roles are present. Due to the stress and lack of support such precocious roles can bring, the research suggests that they may raise the likelihood of these outcomes. It is crucial that parents and other adults take precautions to prevent youngsters from being given precocious roles in the family and are aware of the potential problems involved.

A logistic regression was performed to ascertain the predictive effects of family management practices on the likelihood that a child will be delinquent versus not be delinquent. The researcher tested the null hypothesis that there is no statistically significant predictive relationship between family management practices and juvenile delinquency in Nairobi and Mombasa counties. The logistic regression model was statistically significant, X2 (1, N = 360) = 35.36, p = .000. The model explained 12.5% (Nagelkerke R2) of the variance in delinquency. The model was able to correctly classify 46.9% of those who would turn out delinquent and 82.5% of those who would not, for an overall success rate of 66.7%. Table 2 shows the logistic regression coefficient, Wald test, and odds ratio for each of the predictors. The odds ratio for family management practices indicates that when holding all other variables constant, a child is 2.3 times more likely to turn out delinquent than non-delinquent with poor family management practices. Therefore, employing a .05 criterion of statistical significance, null hypothesis was thus rejected because the findings show a statistically significant predictive relationship between family management practices and juvenile delinquency. Family management practices has significant partial predictive effects on juvenile delinquency at 0.00 which is less than the threshold of 0.05.

Table 12: Omnibus Tests of Model Coefficients

Table 13: Model Summary and Hosmer and Lemeshow Test

Model Summary

Note: Estimation terminated at iteration number 4 because parameter estimates changed by less than .001.

Hosmer and Lemeshow Test

Table 14: Classification Table

Classification Table

Note: The cut value is .500.

Table 15: Variables in the Equation

In conclusion, these findings indicate that family management practices, such as supervision, family conflicts, child maltreatment and precocious role entry, can have a significant impact on the development of juvenile delinquency. The link between inadequate parental supervision and juvenile delinquency was firmly established. Children without consistent supervision may engage in unsupervised activities, substance experimentation, or criminal behaviors. The absence of parental oversight creates an environment where children are susceptible to negative peer influences, heightening the likelihood of delinquent behaviors. This correlation emphasizes the crucial role of parental supervision in preventing juvenile delinquency. Implementing after-school programs, community policing initiatives, and parental education campaigns can address gaps in supervision, providing a structured setting for adolescents. The findings of the studies also indicated that child maltreatment, neglect, precocious role entry, and family-management-related issues such as parental supervision are all linked to greater rates of delinquency among kids and teenagers.It is important for parents to be aware of the impact of their behaviors on their children’s behavior and to work to resolve conflicts between family members in order to reduce the risk of delinquency. In addition, it is important for parents to provide consistent and supportive discipline techniques in order to promote positive behavior in their children.

Drawing from insights provided by the stakeholders, the findings underscore the urgency of understanding how family dynamics contribute to the normalization of delinquency within Kenyan households. The family, as the primary socializing entity, holds a pivotal role in shaping a child’s values, behaviors, and decision-making processes. Scrutinizing these practices becomes imperative for comprehending the situational factors contributing to juvenile delinquency in Kenya.

The suggestions from the interviews include the establishment of clear rules and consistent discipline forms the backbone of effective family management. The insights from the interviews opine that children reared in households with steadfast rules and consequences are more likely to internalize societal norms and exhibit prosocial behavior. Inconsistent discipline or a lack of clear rules may breed confusion among children, potentially elevating the risk of delinquent activities. The relationship between family discipline practices and juvenile delinquency therefore underscores the necessity for structure and consistency. Programs like parenting education initiatives, community-based support services, and school-led endeavors can guide parents in implementing effective discipline strategies, mitigating the likelihood of delinquent behaviors.

It was also mentioned by the counsellors that open and effective communication within the family cultivates a healthy environment for children. Inadequate or poor communication patterns may lead to misunderstandings, emotional turmoil, and frustration, potentially steering children towards delinquent behaviors as an outlet. Adolescents perceiving a lack of emotional support or finding it difficult to express their concerns within the family might seek alternative avenues, including association with delinquent peers or involvement in risky behaviors. The relationship between poor communication within the family and juvenile delinquency lies in the potential emotional turmoil experienced by adolescents. When children feel unable to express their concerns or receive emotional support, they may seek alternative outlets for emotional expression, including engaging in delinquent activities. The correlation emphasizes the significance of promoting healthy communication patterns within families, reducing the risk of emotional distress and delinquent behaviors among adolescents. Family counseling services, communication workshops, and community programs focusing on emotional well-being can enhance family communication, creating a more supportive environment for children.

The management and resolution of conflicts within families significantly influence a child’s perception of conflict resolution. Families equipped with constructive conflict resolution strategies provide a model for adolescents to navigate conflicts in a non-violent and productive manner. Frequent family conflicts or unresolved conflicts within the household may contribute to increased stress and emotional distress among children, potentially leading to delinquent behaviors. Families struggling with effective conflict resolution may also inadvertently contribute to juvenile delinquency. Children exposed to frequent family conflicts or experiencing conflict within the household may seek alternative social circles for support, potentially leading to association with delinquent peers. The correlation highlights the need for interventions that address family conflict, promoting constructive conflict resolution strategies to create a more stable environment for adolescents. Conflict resolution training for families, community-based mediation services, and school initiatives promoting conflict resolution skills can contribute to creating a more harmonious family environment, reducing the risk of juvenile delinquency.

Recommendations given include: Implementation of community-based after-school programs that provide a structured environment for adolescents, collaboration with law enforcement to enhance community policing, ensuring increased visibility and safety, and conducting campaigns to raise awareness about the importance of positive family management practices.

CONCLUSIONS

The study rejects the null hypothesis, establishing a statistically significant predictive relationship between family management practices and juvenile delinquency in Nairobi and Mombasa counties. Family management practices exhibit significant partial predictive effects on juvenile delinquency. Specific dimensions of family management practices, such as monitoring and supervision, family conflicts, child maltreatment, and precocious role entry, show significant differences between delinquents and non-delinquents.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

The policy recommendations from this study include:

Developing targeted intervention programs focusing on enhancing family management practices, with an emphasis on effective monitoring and supervision to reduce delinquent behaviour. Implementation of family conflict resolution strategies to address the higher levels of family conflicts observed in delinquent populations is by extension necessary. Further, preventive measures and support systems should be designed to mitigate child maltreatment, recognizing its association with juvenile delinquency. Encouraging community-based initiatives that provide resources and support for families to improve overall family management practices and promote a healthier environment for juvenile development may also be established.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

The first limitation is that the study was conducted using cross-sectional strategy limiting the findings generated on trends in regard to juvenile delinquency. There is need to investigate specific dimensions of moderating effect of socio-economic factors and cultural factors on the effect of the situational factors on juvenile delinquency. Conducting cross-cultural studies to compare the influence of family management practiceson juvenile delinquency in different regions would help attain this.

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