An Assessment Of The Drivers Of Wetlands Transformation In Kisii Town, Kenya

An Assessment of the Drivers of Wetlands Transformation in Kisii Town, Kenya

Fredrick Bosire Osoro^*, Lorna Grace Okotto and Frankline Otiende Awuor

School of Spatial Planning and Natural Resources Management, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology

*Correspondence Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9010182

Received: 03 January 2025; Accepted: 08 January 2025; Published: 11 February 2025

ABSTRACT

Wetlands are areas of importance according to Ramsar Convention. However, they are increasingly under threat as a result of unwise utilization which leads to undesired transformation. The study sought to assess how wetlands have been transformed, find out the main drivers of transformation, to establish the current status of natural wetlands and to explore stakeholders’ recommendations on mitigation and rehabilitation measures of the affected wetlands in Kisii town. The target population was 440 households whose land parcels were adjacent to the wetlands of study, 7 Key informants and farmers divided into two groups for discussions. The methodology entailed use of stratified random sampling and data was collected by use of questionnaires, document reviews, interviews, group discussions and observation. Data from questionnaire were cleaned, coded and then fed into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 and Microsoft Excel version 2010. The analysis was then accomplished through the computation of frequencies and percentages that are presented in form of tables and figures to facilitate further interpretation, the rest of the data were analyzed through content analysis. Results indicate that 60% of the respondents were of the view that wetlands in the study area have been degraded and there have been little or no efforts of rehabilitation and restoration. The study further found out that considerable loss of biodiversity had been occasioned by negative wetland transformation. It was found out that the main drivers of wetlands transformation in Kisii town are massive development activities (15.8%), invasive species (12.5%) and overgrazing by livestock (12.5%). The study recommends that 1) Government agencies should focus on mitigation programmes to deter further degradation through multi-sectoral approach, 2) establishment of a one stop development approval center by the County government to deter development on riparian and wetland areas, and 3) gazettement of wetland areas for conservation activities. These can be achieved through formulation of wetland policy for Kisii as a County to take care of the existing policy gaps.

Keywords: Wetlands, drivers of transformation, conservation, policy awareness, Kisii Town

INTRODUCTION

Wetlands occupy approximately 6% of the earth’s surface area (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2010). Although wetlands constitute only around 1% of Africa’s total surface area, (excluding coral reefs and some of the smaller seasonal wetlands), this is likely to change drastically if appropriate conservation of wetlands is not undertaken because of the rapid wetland degradation all over the world

According to the Kenya Wetlands Regulation of 2009, wetlands cover approximately 4% of Kenya’s land surface area, which increase to 6% during rainy periods.  Eighty percent of wetlands are outside protected areas. Traditionally wetlands were utilized as sources of materials for construction, food, medicine, handcrafts and furniture. They also serve as important fishing areas, grazing grounds and sources of water for domestic use as well as livestock watering and also harbor huge biodiversity components (Government of Kenya, 2009).

In the recent past, wetlands have been degraded at a rapid pace through conversion to other land uses and cover. Fifty percent of the world’s wetlands have been lost in the past century (World Conservation Union, 2007). For instance, by 1990 when Kenya ratified the Ramsar convention, most of the country’s wetlands had been degraded due to conversion to other land uses and cover (World Conservation Union, 2007).

Various studies have been carried out focusing on wetlands including those in Kisii. Mironga (2005a) studied the effects of farming practises on wetlands of Kisii and another study (Mironga 2005b) on wetland conservation attitudes of users in the same area. In his study of 2006, Miroga focused on the degradation of wetland ecosystems of Kisii District (Mironga 2006b).  Mecha (2010) studied how households utilize riverine wetlands and how this contributes to food security in Nyamira. He found that wetlands were used to generate food products thus contributing to household food security. In addition, Masese (2012) studied the implication of human perception on the conservation of Sironga and Kianginda wetlands where she found that majority of household’s perceived wetlands as an economic resource therefore exploiting them for monetary gain. However, the role of other drivers of change like climate change, water diversion for other purposes, development activity, catchment disturbance, weeds and invasive plants and their possible contribution have not been explored by earlier studies conducted in the study area.

In the recent past, the Directorate of Environment of Kisii County Government has raised concern over the rate of degradation of wetland, The conversion rate (from 70% to 100% table 7) of the riparian areas to other uses is alarming (Sate Of the Environment report, Kisii 2013).  Anthropogenic activities such as human settlements, brick making, overgrazing, cultivation, planting of eucalyptus trees and unsustainable exploitation of wetland resources were identified causes of pressure on the wetlands.

METHODOLOGY

Mixed methods design was adopted in this study. Quantitative data was obtained from observation checklists and questionnaires while qualitative data was obtained from interviews with key informants, group discussions with people aged 60 years and above. The study area was Kisii town, located in south-western Kenya. It is the main urban and commercial centre and the headquarter of Kisii County. Wetland areas located at Daraja Mbili, Denmanrk petrol station, Main transportation stage, Makutano petrol station area, Daraja Moja and Kereri were studied (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Satellite imagery of Kisii town showing the location of the studied wetland

The study targeted 440 households with land holdings adjacent to wetlands as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Landholdings with Wetlands

Source: Directorate of Physical planning – Kisii County

Key informants from the following institutions were also targeted; Gusii Water and Sanitation Company, National Environment Management Authority, Water Resources Authority, Physical planning department, Environment department, Fisheries department and Town administration. This is because their work is directly or indirectly linked to the health of the wetlands.

According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2013), 30% of the population is sufficient for most studies. Therefore, 132 of the residents with land holdings touching wetlands were selected for this study. This number represents 30% of the study population (Table 2).  Respondents for the household survey were selected using stratified simple random sampling technique while key informants were purposively sampled.

Table 2: Sampling Strategy and Sample Size

Questionnaires were administered to the 132 respondents   with 75 questionnaires being issued to those on Riverine wetlands, 30 questionnaires to those on marshy and 27 questionnaires were issued to those who had manmade wetlands (Ponds). (Table 3).

Table 3. Proportionate sampling

In focused group discussions, the researcher used purposive sampling to select older household heads with landholdings adjacent to wetlands. Both males and females from the strata size of riverine, marshy areas and ponds, 2 focused group discussions were held has indicated in table 4

Table 4. Focused group respondents

Data collection was undertaken by means of questionnaires which were administered to 132 respondents. Key informants were Environmental officers from National Environment Management Authority, Physical planning, Department of Kisii Municipality, and Fisheries and Water Resources Authority. Key informants from Government departments advised on the initial boundaries of the wetlands as per the 1971 Physical Development Plan of Kisii town  Two group discussions were held with land parcel owners who were aged 60 years and above for information on the status of the wetlands from their childhood and how they have changed in their lifetime. Physical observations of the wetlands were also made and relevant data captured as notes. Secondary data was obtained from the departments of physical planning and Kisii Municipal services

Google maps were used to calculate the initial and the current size of the affected wetland using the standard procedure of doing so (Frančula, N., Lapaine, M., Župan, R., Kljajić, I., Poslončec-Petrić, V., Vinković, A., & Cibilić, I. 2021).

Data from questionnaire were cleaned, coded and then fed into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 and Microsoft Excel version 2010. The analysis was then accomplished through the computation of frequencies and percentages that were then presented in form of tables and figures to facilitate interpretation.

REULST AND DISCUSSION

One hundred and twenty respondents managed to return their questionnaires. This represented a 91% return rate which was considered sufficient for analysis. Most of the people interviewed were males (53%) while the females accounted for 47%. Most of the people given questionnaires were below 40 years of age. Table 5 shows the demographic features of the respondents.

Table 5: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Wetland Transformation

Concerning wetlands transformation, Table 6 gives the data obtained from the field.

Table 6: Wetland Transformation

As shown in Table 6, sixty percent of the respondents admitted that the wetlands have transformed while 40 percent respondent that they have not transformed.

The respondents who accepted that wetlands have transformed, were further asked to describe the nature of transformation, 71.67% agreed that there has been a decrease in wetland size. For decline in water volume 79.17% were of the view that water volume has decreased and by use of physical parameters of colour and oduor 61.67% were of the perception that there has been change in wetland water quality. Water logged areas in the past had a variety of plants ranging from sedges, reeds and bulrushes which are no longer in existence and now wetland areas are planted with eucalyptus trees.

The current status of wetlands as regards to size has declined (table 7) with a percentage change of over 70%, physical water quality has deteriorated with floating objects, turbid and smelly (Table 8) with biodiversity and plant cover having mostly introduced species (Table 9)

Table 7: Summary table of the current status of change of size of natural wetlands in Kisii town

Table 8: Summary table of the current status of physical water quality of natural wetlands in kisii town

Table 9: SUMMARY TABLE OF THE CURRENT STATUS ON BIODIVERSITY AND PLANT COVER OF NATURAL WETLANDS IN KISII TOWN

⁶ Indicates the population of the flora relative to the rest except small grasses using data obtained from field observation

⁷ Indicates the approximate percentage of canopy cover of the flora

With regard to key drivers of transformation of wetlands, the study established the following as shown in Table 10.

 Table 10: Key drivers of wetlands change

Drivers of Wetland transformation

Figure 2: Respondents perception on the drivers of wetland transformation

For the drivers of wetland transformation development activities were the main drivers of change followed by invasive species then livestock grazing which has greatly affected wetland vegetation, climate change, water diversion and solid waste disposal as per the study findings stand at number four whereas soil harvesting and crop farming are at number five, wood and timber harvesting were at number six, sewage disposal at number seven, fish farming at number eight and wildlife harvesting at number nine (Figure 2).

The respondents identified climate change as one of the drivers of wetland change, a total of ten (10) respondents pointed out the issue and therefore 8.3% of the respondents were able to highlight the cause of wetland change to be climate change. Climate change alters hydrological regimes hence affecting wetlands; it leads to increased temperature and altered evapo-transpiration, altered biogeochemistry, altered amounts and patterns of suspended sediment loadings, fire and oxidation of organic sediments (International Panel on Climate Change 1998, Burkett &Kusler, 2000).

Concerning invasive species, a total of 15 respondents, representing 12.5% of the respondents identified invasive species to be the cause of wetland change, the main invasive species identified in Kisii Town by the majority are Ecalyptus spp locally known as Omoringamu or Omotandege. This invasive species has led to disappearance of old species from the wetlands.

On agricultural activities, Kisii region is majorly known to be an agricultural area. Therefore, water withdrawals for irrigation purposes can act to accelerate other effects of other stressors on the urban wetland ecosystems. Altinsacli and Griffiths (2001) in their study identified dewatering of wetlands for irrigation purposes; this has increased eutrophication levels especially within wetland areas hence endangering the ecosystem functions of the same wetlands.

Among the respondents, 19 of them identified development activities as a cause of wetland degradation which amounted to 15.8% of the entire population. Ten (10) respondents, representing 8.3% of the population identified wetlands as a place where people dump solid waste, six people of the respondents noted that there has been increased sewage discharge into wetlands in the recent past.

Based on the research findings, development activities contribute majorly to wetland degradation, 15.8% of the respondents identified development activities as the major contributor to degradation. The other domestic uses identified were soil harvesting (6.7%) for brick making and special soil for fine finishing of traditional houses, wood fuel harvesting (5.8 %) and timber harvesting (5.8%) for general domestic use.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In conclusion, Kisii Town’s wetlands have undergone negative transformation due to their decrease in size, which suggests that the drivers causing wetland change have been triggered, particularly development activities that have completely converted seven marshy areas to other uses, and the remaining two marshy areas have been converted to other uses by over 93%. This implies that almost all of Kisii Town’s marshy areas have undergone negative transformation due to their shrinkage, with no effort or little effort on rehabilitation, as the conversion is between 93% and 100%.

The study recommends that government Agencies responsible for wetland protection should focus on the river rine of Kisii town in terms of mitigation programmes to deter further degradation. This can be achieved through a multi-sectoral approach whereby the Kisii County Government departments, NEMA, WRA and Lands work together to enhance enforcement of the riparian areas protection regulations of 2009, this should be done through multi-sectoral approach and establishment of a one stop development approval center by the County government to deter development on riparian and wetland areas. The gazettement of wetland areas for conservation activities which can be achieved through formulation of wetland policy is also recommended.

REFERENCES

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FOOTNOTES

[1] From questionnaire respondents

5. current size of wetland area calculated using Google maps

[2] Remarks includes any other significant observation

[3] Clear, turbid, smelly, with floating objects, eutrophicated,

[4] Soil erosion, solid waste disposal, sewage disposal, soil/debri deposition

⁶ Indicates the population of the flora relative to the rest except small grasses using data obtained from field observation

⁷ Indicates the approximate percentage of canopy cover of the flora