Obstacles to the East African Community Initiated Peace Process in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

Obstacles to the East African Community Initiated Peace Process in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

*Mohamed Bulle Muhumed, Otieno Isaiah Oduor

Department of Security, Diplomacy and Peace Studies, Kenyatta University

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9020293

Received: 11 February 2025; Accepted: 15 February 2025; Published: 19 March 2025

ABSTRACT

In Eastern DRC a civil war has been ranging since 1996. This study analyzed the obstacles and challenges to the EAC initiated peace process in Eastern DRC. This study was anchored on two complementary theories namely Neo-liberal Institutionalism and Realism. Neoliberal Institutionalism theory argued that regional organizations supplement the role of states also enhance and reinforce by acting as arbitrators in state disputes. Regional organizations also reinforce and enhance the efforts of states in arbitration of international disputes. Realism theory on the other hand explained emerging geo-political interests in the EAC initiated peace process in Eastern DRC. This study was in the form of an exploratory research design. This study employed random and purposive to identify 384 respondents for field interviews. Structured questionnaires were administered to 360 randomly selected Congolese refugees in Kenya from three selected locations. Interview schedules were administered to 24 purposively selected diplomats from Tanzania, Uganda, DRC, Rwanda, Burundi, officials from the Ministry of EAC in Kenya, EALA members and experts in international peace and conflict studies. This study employed quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis and interpretation. This study identified non-inclusivity of the EAC initiated peace-process; the EAC has not put in place clear strategic directives in the peace process, lack of legitimacy of the peace process, the AU statue on state sovereignty and non-intervention in the internal affairs of states, lack of political good by affected member states and lack of adequate financial resources as major challenges to the EAC initiated peace process in Easter DRC.

INTRODUCTION

Falola and Oyebade (2010) elucidate the origins of instability and civil conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). They argue that the colonial governance by Belgium failed to prioritize the development of educated African elite capable of assuming political leadership in such a vast nation. Following the DRC’s independence, the political leadership lacked the necessary skills and infrastructure to effectively manage the state. Muraya and Ahere (2014) attribute the unrest in the DRC to the legacy of the former President Mobutu Sese Seko’s administration. They assert that during the Cold War, the nation experienced an economic stagnation that severed its ties with the global political and economic landscape. Consequently, the intermittent violence in the DRC fostered an environment that eventually culminated in a prolonged civil war. The regions of North and South Kivu have recently emerged as the most violent areas within the DRC.

Scholars have extensively examined the origins of civil conflict in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Di Piazza (2008) attributes the onset of the first civil war in this region to ethnic tensions exacerbated by the arrival of Rwandan refugees during the civil war in 1994. The subsequent fallout between Laurent Kabila and his Rwandan and Ugandan allies, who had assisted him in toppling Mobutu, culminated in an armed conflict in Eastern DRC that began in 1998 (Ruddock, 2001).

Turner (2007) categorizes the civil conflict in Eastern DRC into two distinct forms. The first form involves clashes between the indigenous population and Kinyarwanda speakers who migrated from Rwanda following the 1994 genocide. The second form of conflict arises from hostilities among various Kinyarwanda-speaking ethnic groups. The longstanding animosities between the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups, which contributed to the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, were carried over into Eastern DRC as refugees fled the violence in their homeland.

The unstable political landscape in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has facilitated the rise of various rebel factions, as noted by Stearns (2011). Kibasomba and Lombe (2011) document the formation of the M23 and other insurgent groups. The Congolese National Defense of the People (CNDP), led by General Laurent Nkunda, emerged in 2006, primarily consisting of former members of the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) based in Goma, with the aim of safeguarding the Tutsi community. General Nkunda defected from the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of Congo (FARDC) to join the CNDP, asserting that President Joseph Kabila had failed to ensure the safety of the Tutsi population in Kivu from assaults by Rwandan Hutu militias (Ibid, 2011).

The United Nations Charter’s Chapter 8 recognizes the significance of Regional Organizations in addressing international security issues. In accordance with the principles outlined in the UN Charter, Regional Economic Communities (REC) has increasingly participated in regional peace-building initiatives (Adetula et al, 2016). Kelly (2013) highlights that the complex nature of threats to international security and the rise of intra-state conflicts in Eastern DRC.

Munyori (2018) points out that the evolving landscape and the rising incidence of civil wars underscore the critical role of civil society and regional organizations in mediating emerging issues through peaceful means. Consequently, global civil conflict and political violence adversely impact the formation and integration of regional economic communities. The occurrence of civil wars and the changing dynamics among member states have expanded the responsibilities of Regional Organizations to encompass the promotion of peace within their designated areas.

The East African Community (EAC) has committed itself to restoring peace and stability in Eastern DRC. Since its inception, the EAC has diligently worked to address local challenges. It has established frameworks to tackle issues related to peace and security (William, 2011). Among the strategies employed by RECs in peace restoration are mediation (Dersso, 2013), negotiation (Wallensteen, 2011), and peacekeeping missions (Enuka & Nwagbo, 2016). Currently, the EAC has deployed a joint force to Eastern DRC to uphold peace in this unstable region. The DRC became a member of the EAC in April 2022. In light of this context, that this study analyzed the obstacles to the EAC initiated peace process in Eastern DRC.

Statement of the Problem

The civil conflict in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has persisted since 1996, resulting in widespread violence that has claimed the lives of millions. Furthermore, this ongoing strife has led to the displacement of countless individuals, many of whom have sought refuge in neighboring countries. The escalation of violence has also resulted in numerous injuries and instances of sexual violence against women. This situation necessitates urgent action to halt the civil unrest. The East African Community (EAC) has tasked its member states with actively engaging in the peace restoration efforts to prevent further atrocities, including mass killings and sexual violence.

In the aftermath of the Cold War, the role of Regional Economic Communities (RECs) in fostering regional peace-building initiatives has significantly expanded. The increase in intra-state conflicts and the intricate nature of global security challenges have underscored the need for regional organizations to take a more prominent role in peace restoration. It is essential to analyze the prevalence of civil conflicts, their changing dynamics, and the contributions of regional organizations to peace negotiations. The involvement of these organizations in peace talks enhances the legitimacy of the process, fostering greater inclusivity, participation, and acceptance among the involved parties. Originally established to promote sustainable economic development among member states, the EAC has had to extend its mandate to encompass the pursuit of peace within its designated regions.

It is crucial to critically assess the various peace-building strategies and frameworks that have been employed in Eastern DRC over the past twenty-six years. Additionally, one must consider whether the interventions by regional and international entities have facilitated or hindered peace in this unstable area. Another pertinent inquiry is the degree to which both regional and international organizations have contributed to the establishment of enduring peace and stability in the peace process in Eastern DRC. This study aims to address this gap by analyzing the obstacles to the EAC initiated peace process in Eastern DRC.

Specific Objective of the Study

To analyze the obstacles to the EAC initiated peace process in Eastern DRC.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Regional organizations worldwide face numerous challenges in their efforts to implement conflict resolution strategies or establish conflict management systems aimed at ending civil strife. Since the Westphalia Peace Treaty was signed in 1648, the principle of sovereignty has posed a significant barrier to effective conflict management. This treaty underscored the importance of respecting state sovereignty. As noted by Williams (2011), many regional organizations and governments adopt this perspective to protect their national or regional interests, as well as their own sovereignty. The principles of sovereignty and non-interference in the internal matters of other nations are firmly embedded in the charters of the United Nations, the African Union, and various regional organizations across Africa. This context elucidates the African Union’s hesitance to intervene in most regional conflicts.

Sousa (2013) points out that the absence of political goodwill among member states in conflict situations serves as an additional limitation. Nevertheless, the threshold for intervention includes severe violations such as crimes against humanity, war crimes, genocide, unlawful constitutional amendments, and situations where an aggressor threatens the sovereignty of a member state. The primary challenge lies in the determination of what qualifies as crimes against humanity or genocide, which adds complexity to conflicts and the respect for the sovereignty of regional entities. Essentially, ineffective engagement is exacerbated by delayed reactions to conflicts among regional states.

Barasa (2011) contends that the most significant barrier to preventing violent mass casualties and effectively managing conflicts is the lack of political will from nations, regional organizations, and international bodies to take decisive action. There is a pressing need for effective political mobilization and leadership, particularly in establishing the necessary practical measures to encourage dialogue between opposing factions. Yang et al. (2013) further emphasize that even the most effective strategies employed by Regional Economic Communities (RECs) to restore stability and peace will falter without the political backing of the nations affected by internal strife and warfare. Adebaio (2002) notes that possession of adequate resources that include financial assets, human capital, and information, is crucial for conflict resolution. The capacity to access a reservoir of resources during a dispute is equally important for managing conflicts. The availability of these resources significantly influences an organization’s response in terms of the speed, scale, and duration of peacekeeping operations

Allehone (2008) asserts that there is typically an agreement or presumption that when regional organizations like the UN assume control of the mission after 90 days then the AU or EAC should take over. The majority of Africa’s war-torn nations, including South Sudan, Burundi, Mali, and the DRC, have experienced this. In the case of Somalia the UN has sponsored despite the fact that the AU has remained in the Somalia, under AMISOM longer than anticipated (Shinn, 2012). As a result, regional authorities’ capacity for long-term strategic planning which is crucial in scenarios involving peace-building and conflict management has decreased due to a lack of adequate finance. There is a serious dearth of funding for regional organizations’ conflict management programs. In order to carry out peacekeeping missions RECs like ECOWAS, SADC and IGAD and the EAC lack the necessary financial resources. This study examined how resource deficiency has militated against the efforts of the EAC in conflict management in Eastern DRC.

Theoretical Framework

This research was informed by two interrelated theories: Neo-liberal Institutionalism and Realism. Neo-liberal Institutionalism highlights the significance of international organizations and global communities in the realm of global politics. This theory posits that states should establish integrated communities to promote economic development and tackle both internal and external security issues. The study contends that the influence of Regional Economic Communities (REC) in regional peace-building efforts has increased since the conclusion of the Cold War. The rise of intra-state conflicts and the intricacies of international security challenges have necessitated a more prominent role for regional organizations in peace restoration.

Realism theory complements Neo-liberal Institutionalism by asserting that the international landscape is inherently chaotic and anarchic, with humanitarian interventions often serving the interests of the interveners. Realism argues that states engage with one another in the international system primarily to advance and safeguard their own interests. It is argued that while the East African Community (EAC) is dedicated to restoring stability in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the geopolitical interests of certain member states have adversely affected the peace process. The presence of rivalries and competing interests among the various stakeholders involved in the Eastern DRC peace process is elucidated through the lens of realism.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research utilized an exploratory design. It incorporated both random and purposive sampling methods to identify participants for field interviews. Random sampling was applied to choose Congolese refugees living in Nairobi. Conversely, purposive sampling was utilized to select diplomats from Tanzania, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi, as well as officials from the Ministry of East African Community in Kenya, members of the East African Legislative Assembly, and specialists in international peace and conflict studies. A total of 376 respondents were interviewed in this study.

A total of 360 randomly selected Congolese refugees living in three areas of Nairobi of Kasarani, Githurai Mwiki, and Kamukunji were given questionnaires. Additionally, interview schedules were conducted with 24 purposefully selected individuals, which included diplomats from Tanzania, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi, as well as officials from Kenya’s Ministry of East African Community (EAC), members of the East African Legislative Assembly (EALA), and specialists in international peace and conflict studies. In this research, both questionnaires and interview schedules served as the primary tools. Quantitative data was gathered through the questionnaires, while qualitative data was obtained via the interview schedules.

This research employed a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches for data analysis and interpretation. The quantitative data gathered from questionnaires was systematically coded and organized into percentage formats. The analysis of this quantitative data was conducted using SPSS software. Descriptive statistics were utilized, and the results were displayed in tables, graphs, and pie charts. For the qualitative data, content analysis was performed, with open-ended questions and comment sections transcribed verbatim. The researcher identified recurring themes that represented the core concepts. Furthermore, the researcher examined the patterns, relationships, and associations among the categories to reveal broader themes or trends. The findings were illustrated through tables, charts, and graphs, while the outcomes of the qualitative analysis were articulated through narrative descriptions.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

Response Rate

Out of the 360 questionnaires distributed, 237, representing 65.8% were responded to while 123 representing 34.2% were not responded to. This is illustrated in table 1.1 below

The study attained a 100% response from the in-depth interviews. This is illustrated in Table 1.2 below.

Challenges to the EAC Initiated Peace Process in Eastern DRC

Table 1.5 Responses to Challenges to the EAC Initiated Peace Process in Eastern DRC

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The strategies employed by the EAC have reached significant achievements, yet they are not without their limitations. On a positive note, military interventions have effectively diminished violence in certain conflict zones, and diplomatic initiatives have encouraged dialogue among previously opposing factions. These actions have also highlighted the necessity for a unified international response. Nevertheless, obstacles such as disjointed implementation, insufficient resources, and deep-seated mistrust among stakeholders have hindered sustained progress. Furthermore, the lack of strong monitoring systems has restricted the effectiveness of peace agreements. Moving forward, it will be essential to integrate these strategies into a unified framework that prioritizes accountability, inclusivity, and sustainability.

Significant challenges have arisen during our operations in the region. Initially, we encountered negative publicity both within and outside the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), which has impacted the perceived legitimacy of our ground troops in fulfilling their mandate. Additionally, we have witnessed the assassination of prominent local community leaders by competing armed factions. There have also been intense confrontations between the M23 and other local armed groups vying for territorial control. The lack of leadership in areas from which rebels have been expelled has further contributed to a precarious situation, increasing the likelihood of these regions reverting to rebel control.

Numerous obstacles impede peace-building efforts in the region. A primary concern is the insufficient funding allocated for both military and diplomatic initiatives, which has led to the partial suspension of certain programs, thereby jeopardizing the progress achieved in the pursuit of sustainable peace. Furthermore, the prevalence of weak institutions and widespread corruption within the DRC warrants attention. For peace-building to succeed, it is crucial to avoid leaving any power vacuums, particularly in areas relinquished by local armed groups due to ongoing initiatives. Moreover, to enhance the effectiveness of these initiatives, it is imperative to address corruption, especially among high-ranking government and military officials.

Efforts to prevent the sharing of intelligence with rebel factions or the misuse of information obtained through authority to undermine the initiatives of various stakeholders in the region are crucial to maintaining the integrity of the central government. Significant external interference has posed a considerable obstacle to achieving peace, primarily driven by foreign entities. These actors bolster the rebels by supplying them with weapons or purchasing minerals, thereby enhancing their capabilities. The porous borders of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) further complicate the regulation of armed group movements and illicit trade. Additionally, the extensive humanitarian crisis, which has resulted in millions of displaced individuals, strains the already limited resources available.

The restrictions on the use of force established by the United Nations have led to considerable difficulties. Additionally, the significant involvement of external parties has intensified instability in the region, as these actors prioritize their own interests over those of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The unlawful extraction of minerals by both international and local entities continues to be a major concern. Certain armed factions take advantage of the lack of a clear and legitimate framework for mineral extraction, trading these resources for weapons that are subsequently utilized against the government and local populations. Historically, peacekeeping missions aimed at restoring stability in the DRC have been assigned limited mandates, allowing only for peacekeeping activities rather than the use of force to confront and neutralize local armed groups. Moreover, the collaboration between high-ranking government officials and senior military leaders with local armed factions for intelligence purposes has significantly obstructed efforts to tackle the challenges posed by these groups.

The research highlighted a significant limitation of previous military interventions in the region, noting that they were inadequately connected to a political framework. The establishment of the Force Interventions Brigade (FIB) in 2013 was intended to serve as the “teeth” of the regional political agreement; however, the integration of the two remained incomplete. Although the mission held authority over the FIB, it did not actively engage in the political process, resulting in difficulties in aligning military and political efforts. Leaders have called upon the African Union (AU) to prioritize the interconnection of political and military processes, emphasizing that neither can be effectively pursued in isolation.

Adebaio (2002) asserts that possessing adequate resources—such as financial support, human capital, and information—is crucial for conflict resolution. The capacity to access a range of resources when a conflict arises is equally important as the management of that conflict. The availability of resources significantly influences an organization’s response regarding the speed, scale, and duration of peace operations.

Military and diplomatic initiatives have suffered from under-resourcing form a serious barrier to the consolidation of peace building in the DRC, where weak institutions and profound corruption undermine decent governance and durable solutions. Regional rivalries, external actors, and the proliferation of armed groups add layers of complexity to the conflict, as it enables such groups to take advantage of porous borders for cross-border movements, illicit trade, and arms smuggling. These combine with the sheer scale of the humanitarian crisis characterized by several million displaced persons, the endemic use of sexual and gender-based violence, and very scant resources for assistance to exacerbate further social cohesion and institutional capacity.

Local tensions are increasingly sharpened by environmental degradation due to resource exploitation. Ineffective coordination between international donors, regional organizations, and local actors also creates redundant or contradictory interventions. Limited accountability and very high unemployment rates, especially among the country’s youth, enhance the vulnerabilities that are perpetuating the recruitment of disenfranchised populations into armed groups and establishing vicious circles of violence and instability. Addressing these challenges necessitates innovative, inclusive, and sustained efforts primarily from the government, our regional organization, and other peacekeeping entities in the area.

From a military perspective, the East African Community should enhance its regional force by increasing financial support, improving coordination, and involving key local community leaders in the decision-making process. On the diplomatic front, establishing independent monitoring bodies to oversee the execution of peace agreements would significantly bolster trust and accountability. Economic strategies should focus on formalizing the mining sector, with revenues from this initiative directed towards enhanced community development. By incentivizing legitimate and ethical mineral exploration and extraction through Public-Private partnerships, we can realize this goal. Ultimately, fostering greater regional integration, both economically and politically, can help mitigate cross-border conflicts and promote shared interests for peace.

The matter of fostering trust among diverse stakeholders at the negotiation table must be addressed with utmost seriousness. This pertains to the concepts of ownership and legitimacy in the implementation of policies that arise from extensive bilateral and multilateral efforts aimed at achieving sustainable peace and development in the region. To date, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has expressed significant concerns regarding substantial external interference in its internal matters. It is imperative that this interference ceases to allow the DRC the necessary time to heal and rebuild.

Furthermore, sufficient funding must be allocated to all peace initiatives planned for Eastern DRC. This funding is crucial to ensure that any initiated projects achieve their intended outcomes, rather than being deprived of essential support, which could lead to their suspension or cancellation, ultimately undermining any progress made. Additionally, the reintegration of locally armed groups into society warrants careful consideration. A comprehensive approach that addresses both social and political dimensions is essential. Finally, the DRC would greatly benefit from focused engagement in Security Sector Reforms and the establishment of robust legal and ethical standards for mineral exploitation and exploration within its territory.

CONCLUSIONS 

This research examined various challenges facing the peace process initiated by the East African Community (EAC) in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The first challenge identified was the lack of inclusivity and partisanship in the peace process. Additionally, it was noted that the EAC has not established clear strategic directives to guide the peace efforts. Furthermore, the legitimacy and acceptance of the peace process among all conflict parties were found to be lacking. Another significant challenge identified was the African Union’s (AU) principles regarding state sovereignty and non-interference in the internal matters of states.

Moreover, the study highlighted the insufficient political goodwill from the affected member states as a considerable obstacle. Lastly, the lack of adequate financial resources emerged as a critical barrier to achieving stability in Eastern DRC. The study concluded that addressing these challenges necessitates a comprehensive approach and a commitment to political goodwill to ensure the effectiveness and efficiency of the initiatives undertaken. One proposed solution to these challenges is the establishment of an efficient and sustainable governance system to enhance the enforceability of legally binding agreements and maintain order in areas where local armed groups have withdrawn.

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