Instructional Leadership Skills of School Heads as Correlates to Schools’ Achievement Test Results: Basis for Leadership Skills Enhancement Program

This quantitative correlational study investigated the instructional leadership skills of 39 school heads and their relationship to the achievement test results of pupils in Central Philippine Union Conference (CPUC, now East Central Philippine Union Conference, ECPUC, and West Central Philippine Union Mission, WCPUM) Adventist elementary schools. The respondents were predominantly female (69.2%) and served schools ranging from 50 to over 300 students, with most school heads having 11–15 years of total experience (30.8%) and 2–5 years at their current school (41.0%). Data were collected using a validated 50-item Instructional Leadership Skills Questionnaire (ILSQ) distributed via Google Forms, while pupils' achievement data were sourced from the CPUC Education Department. Instructional leadership skills were rated as very true overall (M = 4.61, SD = 0.30), with the highest dimension being Interpersonal Relations (M = 4.84, SD = 0.22) and the lowest being Instructional Supervision (M = 4.46, SD = 0.46). CPUC achievement test results averaged 79.23 (SD=2.709), classified as mastery. When grouped by profile characteristics, leadership skills remained very true across gender, school size, and years of experience. At the same time, pupil achievement was slightly higher in larger schools and schools led by school heads with 16–20 years of experience. Spearman’s Rho result showed a weak correlation, revealing no significant relationships between instructional leadership skills, either overall or by dimension, and pupil achievement (p>0.05). These findings suggest that while school heads possess strong leadership skills, translating these into improved student outcomes requires targeted support. Consequently, a six-week Leadership Enhancement Program was developed to strengthen instructional supervision, decision-making, interpersonal relations, and communication skills through workshops, peer coaching, and the implementation of action plans.

Instructional Leadership, CPUC Achievement, School Heads, Teacher Supervision, School Performance

1. Handbook for Principals of Seventh-Day Adventist Schools (2020). North American Division Education Leaders Handbook Series. Adventist Education. North American Division of Seventh-Day Adventists Office of Education North American Division Office of Education 9705 Patuxent Woods Drive, Columbia, MD 21046. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Akinnubi, O. P., Gbadeyan, C. O., Fashikun, C. O., & Kayode, D. J. (2012). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Effective communication: A tool for improvement of secondary school management. Journal of Education and Practice. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/article/view/1855 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Akomodi, J. O. (2025). In-Depth Analysis: The Importance of Instructional Leadership in Education. Open Journal of Leadership, 14, 177-193. doi: 10.4236/ojl.2025.142008 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Andrews, R. L., & Soder, R. (1987). Principal leadership and student achievement. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Educational Leadership, 44 (6), 9-11. Research Gate. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ353780 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Attakumah, D. (2020). Achievement tests as a universal measure of school success [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. across nations: A theoretical perspective. International Journal of Research [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. and Review (ijrrjournal.com). Vol. 7; Issue: 4 April 2020. https://www.ijrrjournal.com/IJRR_Vol.7_Issue.4_April2020/IJRR0021.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Barot, V.L, Cabio, I.L, Cordevilla, R.P., Mark, M., Baculad, J., Aug. 2025. Academic Achievement, Teacher Qualification, and National Achievement Test in Language and Communication, & Media and Information Technology. Research Gate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/394980288_ACADEMIC_ACHIEVEMENT_TEACHER_QUALIFICATION_AND_NATIONAL_ACHIEVEMENT_TEST_IN_LANGUAGE_AND_COMMUNICATION_AND_MEDIA_AND_INFORMATION_LITERACY [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Batucan, N. Jan. 2024. Demographic Profile of Senior High Schools as Predictor of Grade 12 NAT Results: Basis for an Intervention Program. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387271499_DEMOGRAPHIC_PROFILE_OF_SENIOR_HIGH_SCHOOLS_AS_PREDICTOR_OF_GRADE_12_NATIONAL_ACHIEVEMENT_TEST_NAT_RESULTS_BASIS_FOR_AN_INTERVENTION_PROGRAM [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Behiga, R. (June 2022). Issues with the National Achievement Test (NAT) in the Philippines. The University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines. Research Gate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361229592_ISSUES_WITH_NATIONAL_ACHIEVEMENT_TEST_NAT_IN_THE_PHILIPPINES [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Barooah, I., April 24, 2026. Descriptive Correlational Research Design: Best Practices and Examples. merren.io. https://merren.io/descriptive-correlational-research/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Buss, M., Andler, S., & Tiberius, V. (May 2025). Female leadership: an investigative review and research framework. The Leadership Quarterly. Volume 36, Issue 3, May 2025, 101858. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1048984324000870?via%3Dihub [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Cherry, K. (2022, November 21). Achievement tests. How achievement tests [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. measure. What People Learned? Very Well Mind. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-an-achievement-test-2794805 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Cordinete, J.D & Despi, D. E., (March 2023). Educational management and supervisory skills of secondary school principals: A Grounded theory. Global Scientific Journals. GSJ: Vol. 11, Issue 3, online: ISSN 2320-9186. https://www.globalscientificjournal.com/researchpaper/EDUCATIONAL_MANAGEMENT_AND_SUPERVISORY_SKILLS_OF_SECONDARY_SCHOOL_PRINCIPALS_A_GROUNDED_THEORY.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Cotton, K. (1996). School size, school climate, & student performance. School [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Improvement Research Series. https://educationnorthwest.org/sites/default/files/SizeClimateandPerformance.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Coursera. (Updated on Jul 8, 2025). What is effective communication? Skill for work, school, and life. Coursera. https://www.coursera.org/articles/communication-effectiveness [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Das, A., (December 2020). Educational Supervision: A theoretical Perspective. International Journal of Management (IJM) Volume 11, Issue 12, December 2020, pp. 982-987. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353135913_EDUCATIONAL_SUPERVISION_A_THEORETICAL_PERSPECTIVE [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Department of Education. (2015, April 1). DO 8, s. 2015 – Policy guidelines on classroom assessment for the K to 12 Basic Education Program. https://www.deped.gov.ph/2015/04/01/do-8-s-2015-policy-guidelines-on-classroom-assessment-for-the-k-to-12-basic-education-program/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Encyclopedia of Seventh-day Adventists. (2022). Central Philippine Union Conference. General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists. https://encyclopedia.adventist.org/article?id=8API [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Herrity, J, (updated June 7, 2025). Ten Ways to Improve Team Cohesiveness in the Workplace. Indeed. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/team-cohesiveness [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Herrity, J. (2025). Functional Leadership Model: Key Components. Career Guide. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/functional-leadership [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Herrity, J. (2026 March 28). Decision-Making Skills: Definition and Examples. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Indeed.com. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/decision-making-skills [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Herrity, J. (Updated April 17, 2026). Interpersonal skills: Definitions, Examples and How to Improve. Indeed.com. https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/resumes-cover-letters/interpersonal-skills [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Ijaiya, N.Y. (1991). A Guide to Supervision of Instruction. Ilorin. Ilorin: My Grace Repro.co. https://www.sciepub.com/reference/71213 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. James, S. (November 20, 2024, Updated April 22, 2026). Understanding the Goals and Interest of School Administration Today. Education Walkthrough. Updated March 25, 2025. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. https://educationwalkthrough.com/goals-and-interests-of-school-administration/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Jenkins, B. (2009). What it takes to be an instructional. NAESP https://www.naesp.org/sites/default/files/J-F_p34.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Kansas University (February 9, 2025). How to become a principal- a step by step guide. ©2025 University of Kansas. School of Education & Human Sciences. 855-639-7799. https://educationonline.ku.edu/community/how-to-become-a-principal#:~:text=Principals [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Karakose, T., Kardas, A., Kanadlı, S., Tülübaş, T., & Yildirim, B. (2024). How Collective Efficacy Mediates the Association between Principal Instructional Leadership and Teacher Self-Efficacy: Findings from a Meta-Analytic Structural Equation Modeling (MASEM) Study. Behavioral Sciences, 14(2), 85. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-328X/14/2/85 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Kelly, M. (2025). School Testing Assesses Knowledge Gains and Gaps. ThoughtCo. Updated on May 6, 2025. https://www.thoughtco.com/the-purpose-of-tests-7688 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Konczak, R. (2025). What are interpersonal skills? Definition with Examples. Zety. Updated April 23, 2025. https://zety.com/blog/interpersonal-skills [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Kwiecien, S. (October 26, 2024). The many hats of a school principal: Navigating a full schedule with dedication. Cube for Teachers. https://blog.cubeforteachers.com/manyhats/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Lavert, G. (2024, October 31). Leadership in Education: Instructional Leader or Manager? Newsletter. Linkedin.com https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/leadership-education-instructional-leader-manager-lavert-phd-zkxlc [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Le Fevre, D. (2021 March 10). Instructional leadership and why it matters. The Education Hub. Theeducationhub.org.nz. https://theeducationhub.org.nz/instructional-leadership-and-why-it-matters/#:~:text=Instructional%20leadership%20can%20be%20conceptualised,positive%20influence%20on%20student%20achievement [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Ledesma, J. (2013). "Narratives of Longevity: Why Adventist Principals Stay Beyond 10 Years in One School," Journal of Applied Christian Leadership: Vol. 7: No. 1, 36-53. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/jacl/vol7/iss1/4/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. Lombardi, V. (2023 March 22). Top 10 Supervisory Skills of a Good Supervisor. Training Express Blog. trainingexpress.org.uk. https://trainingexpress.org.uk/supervisory-skills-of-a-good-supervisor/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Lukman, D. (May 6, 2023). Principal management skills and students' performance. Medium. https://imperialwriters7.medium.com/principal-management-skills-and-students-performance-2b41cf40840f [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Michael, D., & Kyriakides, L. (2023). Mediating effects of motivation and socioeconomic status on reading achievement: a secondary analysis of PISA 2018. Large-scale Assess Educ 11, 31. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40536-023-00181-9 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Muhajir, N. M. N., Zohriah, A., & Firdaos, R. (2024). Instructional Leadership of the School Principal in Improving Teacher Performance Meta-Analysis. Mudir: Jurnal Manajemen Pendidikan, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.55352/mudir.v6i1.896 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Mullins LJ (2005). Management and Organizational Behavior. Seventh edition, Prentice Hall. https://www.journalijar.com/uploads/609_IJAR-13214.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. OECD (December 5, 2023), PISA 2022 Results (Vol. 1): The State of Learning and Equity in Education, PISA, OECD, Publishing, Paris. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/pisa-2022-results-volume-i_53f23881-en.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. Olowo, B. F. & Oluwatoyin, F.C. (2019, January). Principals’ personnel characteristic skills: a predictor of teachers’ classroom management in Ekiti State secondary school. IJELM International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management. Hipatia Press.com. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1203203 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Papadakis, S., Kanadlı, S., Kardas, A., Tülübaş, T., Karakose, T., & Polat, H. (2024). Investigating the Relationship between Leadership for Learning and Student Achievement through the Mediation of Teacher Performance: A Meta-Analytic Structural Equation Modeling (MASEM) Approach. Education Sciences, 14(12), 1320. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/14/12/1320 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Pietsch, M, Aydin, B., Gumus, S, et. al. (October 25, 2023). Putting the Instructional Leadership-Student Achievement Relation in Context: A Meta-Analytical Big Data Study Across Cultures and Time. Sage Journal. https://scispace.com/papers/putting-the-instructional-leadership-student-achievement-4jrmidmmtp [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Ping, F. (2024). Achievement Test. In: Kan, Z. (Eds). The ECPH Encyclopedia of Psychology. Springer, Singapore. https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-981-97-7874-4_59 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Prestiadi, D., Nurabadi, A., & Bafadal, I. (2025, March 5). Principal's Instructional Leadership: A Theoretical Review. Universitas Negeri Malang, Semarang Street Number 5 Malang, Indonesia. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icemt-24/126008931 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Ruci, A., M.A, M. Ed (March 21, 2023). Importance of Instructional Leadership. Linkedin. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/importance-instructional-leadership-armand-ruci/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Saldivar, S.F., Lumapenet, H.T., & Balayanan, H.D. (June 2023). School principals’ instructional leadership skills: Its influence on teachers’ teaching performance. International Journal of Advance Research and Innovative Ideas in Education. Vol-9 Issue-3 2023 IJARIIE-ISSN (O)-2395-4396 20953 ijariie.com 4810-4812. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371856090_SCHOOL_PRINCIPALS'_INST [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Scribd. 2023 National Achievement Test Results. https://www.scribd.com/document/833175341/NAT-MPS-BY-LEARNING-AREA [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Sofia, S., Syaidah, K., & Shunhaji, A. (December 2023). Principal's Effective Communication and Teacher Performance: A Classroom Perspective. Kelola Jurnal Manajemen Pendidikan 10(2):101-114. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377703417_Principal's_Effective_Communication_and_Teacher_Performance_A_Classroom_Perspective [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Southeast Asia Primary Learning Metrics (SEA-PLM) (2019). https://www.unicef.org/philippines/media/2556/file/Southeast%20Asia%20Primary%20Learning%20Metrics%202019%20National%20Report%20of%20the%20Philippines.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Southworth, G. (2002). Instructional leadership in schools: Reflections and empirical evidence. School Leadership & Management, 22(1), 73–91. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249014861_Instructional_Leadership_in_Schools_Reflections_and_empirical_evidence [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Sreekumar, D. (October 29, 2024). What is Correlational research: Definition, Types, and Examples. Research Life. https://researcher.life. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-correlational-research-definition-and-examples/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Suh, R. (2024). Instructional Leadership. EBSCO. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/education/instructional-leadership [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Sujarwo, S., & Herwin, H. (2023). Parental Involvement and Student Achievement: A Meta-analysis of Publications in the Scopus Database. International Journal of Instruction, 16(2), 107–124. https://e-iji.net/ats/index.php/pub/article/view/133 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Tan, C. Y. (2024). Influence of principal leadership across contexts on students' science learning. Asia Pacific Education Review, 25(1), 31-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12564-023-09828-2 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. Tolentino, A.J. (2025). NAT 2024 results show ‘low proficiency’ among grade 12 students across all regions. https://explained.ph/nat-2024-results-show-low-proficiency-among-grade-12-students-across-all-regions/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. Top Hat. (2024, December 12). Achievement Test Definition and Meaning. https://tophat.com/glossary/a/achievement-testing/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

66. Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) (2025). https://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss-landing.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

67. Tshabalala, G., & Faremi, Y. A. (2024). The Leadership Role of the School Principal in Developing and Improving Learner Performance in Eswatini Schools. European Journal of Education and Pedagogy, 5(6), 7–13. https://eu-opensci.org/index.php/ejedu/article/view/30875 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

68. Tucker, M., (2015, April 30). How Should We Gauge Student Success? The Accountability Dilemma. Education Week Newsletter. https://www.edweek.org/policy-politics/opinion-how-should-we-gauge-student-success-the-accountability-dilemma/2015/04 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

69. Tutsch, C. (2010, Feb.). Spirit-driven leadership: A perspective from Ellen G. White. Ministry. International Journal for Pastors. Ellen G. White Estate, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States. https://www.ministrymagazine.org/archive/2010/02/spirit-driven-leadership [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

70. Wang, X., & Wei, Y. (2024). The influence of parental involvement on students’ math performance: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1463359. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1463359/full [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

71. Wekessa, G. W. (1993). The Impacts of Head Teachers’ Instructional Leadership on Student Academic Achievement in Kenya. An unpublished PhD Dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia, Columbia University. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

72. White, E.G. (2016, September 4). An ideal education. Education. Adventist Review Magazine Article, pp 105-106. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

73. White, E.G (2000). True Education: An Adaptation of Education. Review and Herald Publishing Association. Ellen G. White Estate, Inc. Published by Pacific Press Publishing Association. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

74. White, E.G. (1948). Testimonies for the Church (Nampa, ID: Pacific Press, 1948), 7:259. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

75. White, E.G. (1985). Christian Leadership. V. 106, p. 20. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

76. White, E.G., (1905). Education. Pacific Press Publishing Association. Mountain View California. Ellen G. White Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

77. White, E.G. (1989). Testimonies on Sexual Behavior, Adultery, and Divorce (Silver Spring, MD: Ellen G. White Estate, 235. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

78. Zhang, N., Siaw, Y. L. & Jiang, N. (2025). The relationship between principal instructional leadership and teacher self-efficacy in student engagement and classroom management: a cross-sectional study in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1589958. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1589958/full [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

79. Zhou, X., Shu, L., Xu, Z. et al. The effect of professional development on in-service STEM teachers’ self-efficacy: a meta-analysis of experimental studies. IJ STEM Ed 10, 37 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-023-00422-x [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Assessment of the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Repositioning TVET for Economic Development in Nigeria
• Teachers’ Use of Assure Model Instructional Design on Learners’ Problem Solving Efficacy in Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya
• “E-Booksan Ang Kaalaman”: Development, Validation, and Utilization of Electronic Book in Academic Performance of Grade 9 Students in Social Studies
• Analyzing EFL University Students’ Academic Speaking Skills Through Self-Recorded Video Presentation
• Major Findings of The Study on Total Quality Management in Teachers’ Education Institutions (TEIs) In Assam – An Evaluative Study