The Necessity and Process of Preservation and Standardization of Tripura and Other Indigenous Ethnic Minority Languages in Bangladesh and the Tripura State of India: A Comparative Analysis of the Two Cases

The preservation and standardization of Tripura Kok and other Indigenous ethnic minority languages are critical for maintaining cultural identity and linguistic diversity in Bangladesh and the Tripura State of India. Despite constitutional and policy-level commitments in both regions, challenges such as the dominance of Bengali, lack of resources, and inconsistent implementation hinder progress. This study is guided by two central research questions: (1) What is the current status of government initiatives, educational integration, and community efforts pertaining to Tripura Kok in Bangladesh and the Tripura State of India? and (2) How do the policy frameworks and implementation outcomes of the two regions compare, and what lessons can inform a comprehensive language standardization and revitalization strategy? Employing a comparative policy analysis framework—drawing on Cooper’s (1989) language planning model and Hornberger’s (1994) tripartite framework of status, corpus, and acquisition planning—this study systematically examines and compares the two regions. While India’s Tripura State has made significant strides by granting official language status and integrating Tripurakok into formal education across all levels, Bangladesh’s efforts remain nascent, limited primarily to primary-level textbooks. The study advocates a pandialectal approach to standardization methodologically grounded strategy for harmonizing dialectal variations into a unified standard form without privileging any single dialect. This approach draws on the theoretical work of Wolff (2000) and Mismang (2001) and is illustrated with reference to successful cases such as Quechua standardization in Peru and Standard Bengali. Additionally, the study highlights the potential of digital platforms in language revitalization. Recommendations include institutional support, teacher training, and community engagement to ensure the sustainable development of Tripurakok and other Indigenous languages.

Tripurakok, indigenous languages, linguistic diversity, language preservation

1. Abdullah, M. (2022). Indigenous languages on the verge of extinction. The Dhaka Tribune. Retrieved from https://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/287412/indigenous-languages-on-the-verge-of-extinction [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Ahsan, R. R., & Chakma, S. (1989). Problems of national integration in Bangladesh: The Chittagong Hill Tracts. Asian Survey, 29(10), 959–970. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Annamalai, E. (2001). Managing multilingualism in India: Political and linguistic manifestations. Sage Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Bacchi, C. (1999). Women, policy and politics: The construction of policy problems. Sage. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (Vol. 54). Multilingual Matters. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Baldauf, R. B., Kaplan, R. B., Kamwangamalu, N., & Bryant, P. (2010). What works? Policy and planning in vernacular language education. Current Issues in Language Planning, 12(2), 1–32. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Chakma, S. (2024). Dreams of a minority student: The mother language education program. The Business Standard. Retrieved from https://www.tbsnews.net/supplement/dreams-minority-student-mother-language-education-program-796402 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Chiran, M. (2020). Education in mother tongue: Govt move for ethnic minority students faltering. The Daily Star. Retrieved from https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/news/education-mother-tongue-govt-move-ethnic-pupils-faltering-1870804 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Colebatch, H. K. (2006). What work makes policy? Policy Sciences, 39(4), 309–321. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Constitution of Bangladesh (2022). Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Bangladesh [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Cooper, R. L. (1989). Language planning and social change. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Cope, B., & Kalantzis, M. (1997). Productive diversity. Pluto Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Coronel-Molina, S. M. (1996). Corpus planning for the Southern Peruvian Quechua language. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 12(2), 1–27. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Multilingual Matters. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Debbarma, K., Patra, B. G., Debbarma, S., Kumari, L., & Purkayastha, B. S. (2012). Morphological analysis of Kokborok for Universal Networking Language dictionary. Conference Paper. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Debbarma, P. (2024a). The evolution of Kokborok and its linguistic characteristics. The Academic—International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 2(9), 885–901. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Debbarma, P. (2024b). Kokborok language: Education, policy, and the digital age. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 2(10), 351–365. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Debbarma, P., & Debbarma, N. (2025). The role of Kokborok in contemporary tribal governance and policymaking. The Academic—International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 3(1), 1034–1046. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Elizabeth, K., Chimdi, T., & Beniyam, H. (2009). Language standardization and linguistic identity. Proceedings of the International Language Policy Conference. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Ferguson, C. A. (1982). Standardization as a form of language spread. Brill. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Hamid, M. O., & Honan, E. (2012). Communicative English in the primary classroom: Implications for English-in-education policy and practice in Bangladesh. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 25(2), 139–156. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Hamid, M. O., & Rahman, A. (2019). Language in education policy in Bangladesh: A neo-liberal turn. In A. Kirkpatrick & A. J. Liddicoat (Eds.), The Routledge International Handbook of Language Education Policy in Asia. Taylor & Francis Group. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Hornberger, N. H. (1988). Bilingual education and language maintenance: A Southern Peruvian Quechua case. Foris Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Hornberger, N. H. (1994). Literacy and language planning. Language and Education, 8(1–2), 75–86. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Hornberger, N. H., & King, K. A. (1998). Authenticity and unification in Quechua language planning. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 1(3), 390–410. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. IWGIA—International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (2024). The Indigenous World 2024: Bangladesh. Retrieved from https://iwgia.org/en/bangladesh/5363-iw-2024-bangladesh.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Izsak, R. (2013). Report by the Independent Expert on minority issues. United Nations General Assembly. Retrieved from https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/ Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session22/AHRC2249_English.PDF [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Kaplan, R. B., & Baldauf, R. B. (1997). Language planning from practice to theory. Multilingual Matters. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Kerswill, P. (2004). Koineization and accommodation. In J. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill, & N. Schilling-Estes (Eds.), The handbook of language variation and change (pp. 669–702). Wiley-Blackwell. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Krishnaji, N. (1990). Mother tongue, education, and language retention. Language Policy Studies, 5(2), 45–60. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Ministry of Education (2010). National Education Policy 2010. Government of Bangladesh. Retrieved from https://shed.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/ shed.portal.gov.bd/page/8eb706e4 0e73 4591 9f7b_09623f984319/National%20Education%20Policy-English%20corrected%20_2_%20(6).pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Mohaiemen, N. (2012). Between utopia and fascism. Himal South Asian, 25(3), 22–29. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Mohsin, A. (2023). Minority rights and identity politics in Bangladesh. Journal of South Asian Studies, 46(1), 112–130. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Narzary, K., & Baro, B. C. (2022). Standard Bodo language and process of standardization. International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts (IJCRT), 10(4), 734–738. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Noormohamadi, R. (2008). Mother tongue, a necessary step to intellectual development. Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 12(2), 25–36. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. Paulston, C. B. (1994). Linguistic minorities in multilingual settings: Implications for language policies. John Benjamins. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Population Census (2022). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Government of Bangladesh. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Rahman, A. (2023). Extinction of indigenous language in Bangladesh. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 7(4), 347–355. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2023.7427 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Ramlan (2018). Language standardization from a general point of view. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute-Journal (BIRCI-Journal), 1, 27–33. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Schick, B., de Villiers, P., de Villiers, J., & Hoffmeister, R. (2002). Language and theory of mind: A study of deaf children. Child Development, 78(2), 376–396. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. SIL Bangladesh. (n.d.). Mother tongue-based multilingual education. Retrieved from https://www.silbangladesh.org/language_education/mle [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. Siregar, N. S., Rakasiwi, R., & Hutasuhut, N. I. (2024). The acceptance of standardization of language in society. Media Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan, 14(3), 261–268. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Straaijer, R. (2024). Language standardization. Oxford Bibliographies. https://doi.org/10.1093/obo/9780199772810-0250 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Sultana, S. (2023). Language rights and indigenous communities in Bangladesh. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 44(8), 680–695. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Sultana, S., Dovchin, S., & Pennycook, A. (2021). Transglossic language practices of young adults in Bangladesh and Mongolia. International Journal of Multilingualism, 18(1), 1–17. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. The Daily Star (2022). Ethnic population in 2022 census: Real picture not reflected. The Daily Star. Retrieved from https://www.thedailystar.net/news/bangladesh/news/ethnic-population-2022-census-real-picture-not-reflected-3090941 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. The Daily Star (2025a). Education in mother tongue: Govt move for ethnic minority students faltering. The Daily Star. Retrieved from https://www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/news/education-mother-tongue-govt-move-ethnic-pupils-faltering-1870804 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. The Daily Star (2025b). Right to education (in one’s mother language). The Daily Star. Retrieved from https://www.thedailystar.net/law-our-rights/rights-advocacy/news/right-education-ones-mother-language-3553431 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. The Indian Express (2025). Tripura govt’s priority is to get Kokborok included in the 8th schedule of the Constitution. The Indian Express. Retrieved from https://indianexpress.com/article/india/tripura-govts-priority-get-kokborok-included-8th-schedule-constitution-9126756/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Tripura, B. L. (2024). Languages of the Chittagong Hill Tracts: A policy research for implementing primary school bilingual education programs in local schools. Khudra Nrigushthir Sangskritik Institute. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Tripura, B. L. (2025). The Bangladesh initiative of mother tongue-based multilingual education: Exploring the significance, challenges, and way forwards. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS), IX(II). https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9020255 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. Tripura, D. D. (2025). History of using Roman script for writing Tipra/Tripura language and current crisis. Conference paper. Retrieved from personal communication: ddtripura13@gmail.com [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Trudgill, P. (1986). Dialects in contact. Blackwell. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. United Nations (2007). Resolution A/RES/61/266. United Nations General Assembly. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. United Nations (2025). Safeguarding linguistic diversity. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/en/observances/mother-language-day [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. MIT Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Wölck, W. (2011). A European approach to the standardization of Quechua. Revista de Llengua i Dret | Journal of Language and Law. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/6863785/A_European_approach_to_the_standardization_of_Quechua [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Wolff, J. U. (2000). Language standardization and harmonization [cited in Elizabeth, Chimdi & Beniyam, 2009]. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Synonymy in the Songs of Ummaru Bagobiri: A Contextual Linguistics Analysis
• Aspect of Compounding and Affixation in Bassa-Nge
• Kinayah (Metonymy) in Malay: An Analysis Based on the Science of Balaghah
• Optimality Theory: Application of Dahl’s law in Kindia
• Selling Diversity: The Politics of Representation in Global Advertising