Contribution of Water Vendors in Mitigating Water Scarcity in Keffi Town, Keffi Local Government Area, Nasarawa State, Nigeria

Access to clean and potable water remains a significant challenge in many urban and rural areas of Nigeria, including Keffi Town in Nasarawa State. In response to this challenge, water vendors have emerged as a crucial component of the water supply chain, providing water to households and businesses. This study investigates the contribution of water vendors in mitigating water scarcity in Keffi Town, with a focus on their role in bridging the gap between water demand and supply. The specific objectives were to: identify the sources of vended water supply by the vendors; assess the factors influencing the price of vended water supply in the study area; investigate the distribution pattern of vended water supply and to examine the challenges of patronizing vended water supply in the study area. The selection of the sampled population was based on electoral wards. There are 10 electoral wards as pointed by Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) in Keffi L.G.A, and five wards were randomly selected for sampling considering the homogeneity of the population in terms of water access experiences and the prevalence of water vending activities. Areas (settlements) within these wards were randomly selected and adults especially male/female head of the households were surveyed so as to ensure that the desired experiences of respondents were achieved. The households were selected systematically so as to ensure a fair and unbiased representation of the households in each of the selected area. Also, in order to determine the sample size of questionnaire to be administered, Krejcie & Morgan (1970) sample size table was used, which states that for a given population size more than 75,000 and less than 100,000 at confidence level of 95% and margin error of 5.0%; the required sample size for respondents is 383. In this regard, the sampled population was projected at 57,540. Therefore, given the above sample size 383, a total of 250 respondents were sampled due to limited time frame and resources. This was done considering the homogeneity of water access experiences and the distribution of vended water in the study area. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study examines the operations, challenges, and impacts of water vendors in Keffi Town. The findings reveal that water vendors play a vital role in providing water to residents, particularly during periods of scarcity. However, their operations are hindered by several challenges, including inadequate water sources, high operating costs, and limited regulatory support. The study recommends that policymakers and stakeholders recognize the importance of water vendors and provide them with support and resources to improve their operations and contribute more effectively to mitigating water scarcity in Keffi Town

Water Vendors, Water Scarcity, Keffi Town, Nasarawa State, Nigeria

1. Abubakar I.R. (2016). Quality dimensions of public water services in Abuja, Nigeria. Util Policy 38:43–51Aboki P.M, Mailafiya M.A & Osabo A.P. (2007): Vegetation and forest resources. In Akwa V.L, Binbol N.L, Samaila K.I and Marcus N. D (eds). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Geographyical perspective on Nasarawa State. A publication of the Department of Geography Nasarawa State University Keffi. Onaivi printing and publishing Co Ltd, Keffi. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Acey C. (2008). Neighbourhood effects and household responses to water supply problems in Nigerian cities. J Transdiscipl Res South Afr 4(1):123–156 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. ADB, (2003).Connecting East Asia: A New Framework for Infrastructure. Manila: ADB; Washington, DC: World Bank; Tokyo: Japan Bank for International Cooperation. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Ahmad, T. M. (2017). The role of water vendors in water service delivery in developing countries: A Case of [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Dala Local Government, Kano, Nigeria. Appl. Water Sci, 7, 1191–1201. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Albert, J., Aristanti, C. & Sudjarwo, H. (2008). Operational and Performance Assessment of Small-scale safe water providers in Central Java, Indonesia.Unpublished study in Aquaya Institute and the Dian Desa Foundation. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Anan, K. (2001). Message of UN Secretary-General Kofi Anan on World Water Day. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Andreasen, H. M., & Møller-Jensen, L. (2015). Beyond the networks: Self-help services and post - Settlement Network Extensions in the periphery of Dar es Salaam. Habitat International, 39-47. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Angueletou-Marteau, A. (2007). Informal Water Suppliers Meeting Water needs in the Peri-urban Territories of Mumbai, an Indian perspective. LEPII, Université de Grenoble, CNRS. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Ayalew M, Chenoweth J, Malcolm R, Mulugetta Y, Okotto LG, & Pedley S. (2014) Small independent water providers: their position in the regulatory framework for the supply of water in Kenya and Ethiopia. J Environ Law 26:105–128. doi:10.1093/ jel/eqt028 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Ayoade, J. O. & Oyebande, B. L. (1983).Water Resources.In Oguntoyinbo, J. S., Areola, O. O. & Filani, M. (Eds).A Geography of Nigeria Development (Second Edition). Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books (Nigeria). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Baisa, B., Davis, L., Salant S. W. & Wilcox, W., (2008).The Welfare Costs of Unreliable Water Service. Unpublished MPRA Paper, http://www.mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/9812 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Baker, J. L., (2006). Opportunities and Challenges for Small Scale Private Service Providers in Electricity and [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Water Supply Evidence from Bangladesh, Cambodia, Kenya, and the Philippines. World Bank. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Basani, J. I. & Reilly, B. (2008). “The Determinants of Water Connection and Water Consumption: Empirical evidence from a Cambodian household survey”, World Development, vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 953—968. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Benneh, G., Songsore, J., Nabila, J. S., Amuzu, A. T., Tutu, K. A., Yangyuoru, Y. & McGranahan, G. (1993) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Environmental Problems and the Urban Household in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) – Ghana. Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Bichi, M.H. & Amatobi, D.A. (2013). Assessment of the Quality of Water Supplied By Water Vendors to Households in Sabon-Gari Area of Kano, Northern Nigeria.International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES), 2(1), 09-17. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Binbol, N.L (2007): Climate. in Akwa V.L, Binbol. N.L, Samaila K.I and Marcus N.D (eds) Geographical perspectives on Nasarawa State. A publication of the Department of Geography, Nasarawa State University, Keffi. Onaivi Printing and Publishing Co Ltd, Keffi. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Cheesman, J., Benneth, J & Son, T.V.H. (2008).Estimating Household Demand Using Revealed and Contigent Behaviour.Evidence from Viet Nam.Water Resource Research. 44, 11-42. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Collignon, B., & Vézina, M., (2000).Independant Water and Sanitation Providers in African Cities.Full report of a ten-country study, Water and Sanitation Program, Washington D.C., p. 64. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Daily News (2010). End of Dar es Salaam water blues in sight. Daily News, Dar es Salaam Tanzania. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Dakyaga, Alphonce G. Kyessi & Joel M. Msami (2018). Water Access Today and Tomorrow: Domestic Water Sustainabilityunder Informal Water Supply Markets in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Journal of Sustainable Development; 11(6): ISSN 1913-9063 E-ISSN 1913-9071 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Dalat G.D & Filaba M.A (2007): Historical Background. In Akwa V.L, Binbol N.L Samaila K.I and Marcus N.D (eds) Geographical perspective on Nasarawa State. A publication of the Department of Geography, Nasarawa State University, Keffi. Onaivi printing and publishing Co. Ltd, Keffi. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Dauda SA, Yacob MR & Radam A (2015). Household’s willingness to pay for heterogeneous attributes of drinking water quality and services improvement: an application of choice experiment. Appl Water Sci 5:253–259. doi:10.1007/s13201-014-0186-6 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. FRN, WSS (2000) Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN), Water Supply & Sanitation (WSS) Interim Strategy Note. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Gasson, C. (2017). A new model for water access, Global blueprint for innovation. Global Agenda Councils. Retrieved from http://www.globalwaterleaders.org/water_leaders.pdf. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Hutin Y, Luby S, & Paquet C. (2003) A large cholera outbreak in Kano City, Nigeria: the importance of hand washing with soap and dangers of street-vended water. J Water Health 1(1):45–52 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Ishaku, H.T, Peters, A.A, Haruna, A. & Dama, F.M (2010). The Role of Private Water Vending in Nigeian Peri-Urban Informal Settlements: Implication for Policy Makers, Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 2, 1082-1087 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Kariuki, M. & Schwartz.J. (2005). Small Scale Private Service Providers of Water Supply and Electricity: A Review of Incidence, Structure, Pricing and Operating Characteristics, World Bank Policy. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Katko, T. S. (1991). Reselling and vending water, Journal of the American Water Works Association 83(6): 63–69. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Kjellén, M. (2000). Complementary water systems in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: the case of water vending, Water Resources Development 16(1): 143–154. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Kjellén M., & McGranahan, G., (2006). Informal Water Vendors and the Urban Poor, IIED, Human Settlements Discussion Paper Series, Theme: water -3, p. 26. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Kombe, W., Ndezi, T., & Hofmann, P. (2015). Water Justice City Profile: Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. London: University College London. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

36. Krejcie, R.V. & Morgan, D.W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities, educational and [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

37. psychological measurement, 30, pp 607-610 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

38. Lloyd, B., Bartram, J., Rojas, R., Pardon, M., Wheeler, D. & Wedgewood, K. (1991).Surveillance and Improvement of Peruvian and Drinking Water Supplies.University of Surrey, Guildford, UK. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

39. Lyam, A. (2000). Nasarawa State. In Mamman A.B, Oyebaji, J.O. and Peters S.W. (eds)Nigeria: A people United, a future assured. Survey of States. V0l 2 No2- Millennium edition, Abuja, Federal Ministry for Information: 382-392 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

40. Marcus, N.D & Binbol, N.L, (2007). “In Geographic Perspectives of Nasarawa State”. A Publication of the Department of Geography, Nasarawa State University, Keffi-Nigeria. Onaivi publisher, Keffi. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

41. Metwally, A. M., Ibrahim, N.A., Saad & Abu El-Ela, M.H. (2006). Improving the Roles of Rural Women in Health and Environmental Issues. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 16(2), 133-144. doi:10.1080/09603120500539208 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

42. McGranahan, G., Njiru, C., Albu, M., Smith, M., & Mitlin, D. (2006).How Small Water Enterprises can contribute to the Millennium Development Goals. Evidence from Dar es Salaam, Khartoum and Accra.WEDC, Loughborough University, Uk.1. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

43. McIntosh, A. (2003) Asian Water Supplies: Reaching the Urban Poor. Asian Development Bank (http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Asian_Water_Supplies/asian_water_supplies.pdf, accessed 3 March 2012). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

44. Ndabula, C. & Jiduana G.G., (2010). Domestic Water Use in Selected Settlements in the Sudano- Sahelian Region of Nigeria. .International Journal of Water and Soil Resources Research, Vol. 1 Nos. 1 – 3.Nigerian Industrial Standard (2007). Nigerian standard for drinking water quality (NIS 554: 2007). Standards Organisation of Nigeria, Abuja [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

45. Njiru C (2004) Utility-small water enterprise partnerships: serving informal urban settlements in Africa. Water Policy 6(5):443–452 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

46. Njiru, C. & Albu, M. (2004) Improving access to water through support to small water-providing enterprises, [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

47. Small Enterprise Development 15(2): 30–36. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

48. NPC (2006). National Population Commission: 2006 Census Results. Federal Government of Nigeria. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

49. Ntouda, J., Sikodf, F., Ibrahim, M. & Abba, I. (2013). Access to Drinking Water and Health of Populations in Sub- [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

50. Saharan Africa. Comptes Rendus Biologies, 336(5-6), 305-309. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2013.06.001. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

51. Nura I. B., Aminu S., Ahmad S. A., Abdulkadir B. & Mahmoud Z. I. (2020). Water Vendors Participation In Domestic Water Supply In Unguwa Uku, Tarauni Local Government, Kano State, Nigeria. FUDMA Journal of Sciences (FJS) Vol. 4 No. 4, December, 2020, pp 252 – 258 ISSN online: 2616-1370 -ISSN print: 2645 - 2944. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33003/fjs-2020-0404-509 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

52. Obaje, N.G, Lar, U.A, Nzegbuna, A.I, Moumouni, A, Chaanda, M.S. & Goki, N. G, (2007). Geology and Mineral Resources of Nasarawa State. (Preliminary Investigation):“In Geographic Perspectives of Nasarawa State”. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

53. A Publication of the Department of Geography, Nasarawa State University, Keffi-Nigeria. Onaivi Publisher, Keffi. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

54. Olajuyigbe AE, Rotowa OO, & Adewumi IJ (2012) Water vending in Nigeria—a case study of Festac Town, Lagos. Nigeria. Mediterr J Soc Sci 3(1):229–239. doi:10.5901/mjss.2012.03.01.229 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

55. Onyenechere CO, Eleazu EI, Azuwike OD, Osuji S. & Igwe CF (2012) The dynamics of domestic water vending in Enugu North L.G.A. of Enugu State, Nigeria. J Water Resour Prot 4:224–230. doi:10. 4236/jwarp.2012.44025 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

56. Opryszko MC, Huang H, Soderlund K, & Schwab KJ (2009). Data gaps in evidence-based research on small water enterprises in developing countries. J Water Health 7(4):609–622. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

57. Oyemade, A., Omokhodion, F. O., Olawuyi, J. F., Sridhar, M. K. & Olaseha, I. O. (1998). Environmental and hygiene practices: risk factors for diarrhoea among children of Nigerian market women, Journal of Diarrhoeal Disease Research 16: 241–247. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

58. Quick, R.E., Venczel, L.V., Mintz, E.D., Soleto, L., Aparicio, J., Gironaz, M., Hutwagna, L., Greene, k., Bopp, C., Maloney, K., Chavez, D., Sobsey, M., and Tauxe, R. V. (1999). Diarrhea prevention in Bolivia through point-of-use water treatment and safe storage: a promising new strategy. Epidemiology and Infection 122: 83-90. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

59. Rahaman MM. & Ahmed TS (2016) Affordable water pricing for slums dwellers in Dhaka Metropolitan Area: the case of three slums. J Water Resour Eng Manag 3(1):15–33 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

60. Rahaman MM. & Varis O. (2005). Integrated Water Resources Management: Evolution, Prospects and Future Challenges. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy (SSPP). 1(1): 15–21p. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

61. Salahudeen, H. (2015). The Role of Water Vendors in Domestic Water Supply in Nassarawa Local Government Area of Kano state, Nigeria. MSc Thesis Submitted to the Department of Geography, ABU Zaria. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

62. Samaila K.I & Binbol, N.L. (2007). Hydrology and Water Resources of Nasarawa State.“Geographic Perspectives of Nasarawa State”.A Publication of the Department of Geography, Nasarawa State University, Keffi-Nigeria.Onaivi publisher, Keffi. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

63. Samaila K.I & Ezeaku P.I (2007). Soils and Erosion. In AKwa V.L, Binbol N.L, Samaila K.I, and Marcus N.D. (eds) Geographical perspective on Nasarawa State. A publication of the Department of Geography, Nasarawa State University, Keffi. Onaivi printing and publishing Co. Ltd, Keffi. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

64. Sansom K., & Bos A. (2008). Utility and non-state water service provision for the urban poor. Int. J Water 4(3/4):290–303. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

65. Sheshe M.U. & Magashi A.M (2014). Assessment of physicochemical quality of sachet water produced in selected local Government areas of Kano Metropolis, Kano State, Nigeria. Bayero J Pure Appl. Sci. 7(2):31–35 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

66. Snell, S. (1998). Water and Sanitation Services for the Urban Poor. Small-scale Providers: Typology & Profiles. Working Paper Series, Water and Sanitation Program, World BanK (http://europeandcis.undp.org/WaterWiki/ images/f/f5/Informal_sector_providers.pdf, (Accessed 10 June 2014). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

67. Solo T.M. (2003). Independent water entrepreneurs in Latin America. The other private sector in water services, World Bank, Washington D.C., p. 34. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

68. Solo, T. M. (1999). Small-scale Entrepreneurs in the Urban Water and Sanitation Market, Environment and Urbanization, 11 (1):117-131. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

69. Thompson, J., Porras, I. T., Tumwine, J. K., Mujwahuzi, M. R., Katui-Katua, M., Johnstone, N.& Wood, L. (2001). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

70. Drawers of Water II. 30 Years of Change in Domestic Water Use & Environmental Health in East Africa. Summary. IIED, London. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

71. Tumwine, J. K., Thompson, J., Katua-Katua, M., Mujwahuzi, M., Johnstone, N., Wood, E. & [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

72. Porras, I. (2002). Diarrhoea and effects of different water sources, sanitation and hygiene behaviour in East Africa, Tropical Medicine and International Health 7(9): 750–756. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

73. UN-HABITAT (2003) Water and Sanitation in the World's Cities. Local Action for Global Goals. Earthscan, London. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

74. UNICEF & WHO (2000). Global water supply and sanitation assessment 2000 report. United Nations Children Fund and World Health Organization. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

75. United Nations (1977). Report of the United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata, March 14-25, 1977. New York: United Nations. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

76. United Nations Development Programme. (2011). Small-Scale Water Providers in Kenya: Pioneers or Predators?New York, NY 10017 USA.Van Dijk, M. P. (2008). The role of small-scale independent providers in water and sanitation. Int. J. Water,4(3/4), 275–289. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

77. Water Utility Partnership (2001–2003) "Toolkit. A Practitioner's Companion." The Water Utility Partnership. (http://web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/waterandsanitation/home.html) [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

78. Whittington, D., Lauria, D. T. & Mu, X. (1989a). Paying for Urban Services: a Study of Water Vending and Willingness to Pay for Water in Onitsha, Nigeria. Report INU 40. Infrastructure and Urban Development Department, World Bank, Washington D.C. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

79. WHO (2006) "Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation, a 2008 Millennium Development Goal MDG Assessment on progress for Children: A Report Card." www.childinfo.org/water.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

80. WHO-UNICEF. (2015). Progress on sanitation and drinking water-2015 update and MDG assessment, World Health Organisation, Geneva. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

81. WHO & UNICEF (2010). Progress on sanitation and drinking water: 2010, WHO Press, Geneva, Switzerland. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

82. Wutich, A., Beresford, M., & Carvajal, C. (2016). Can Informal Water Vendors Deliver on the Promise of aHuman Right to Water? Results from Cochabamba, Bolivia. World Development, 79, 14–24.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.043 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

83. Zaroff B., & Okun D.A., (1984). Water vending in developing countries.Aqua, 5, pg. 289-295.Kjellén M., (2000). Complementary water systems in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: the case of water vending. Water Resources Development, 16 (1), 143-154. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Evaluation of Groundwater Quality for Domestic Use in Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria
• Sustainable Nickel Downstreaming Governance in Indonesia: A Maqasid al-Shari'ah Perspective