Do Learners’ Self-Efficacy Predict Their Use of Writing Strategies?

Writing skill is a crucial skill for students in tertiary level education. For students who do not possess good writing skills, they might be intimidated by writing tasks and assignments. This low self-efficacy might hinder them from performing in a writing task. Hence, this study aims to investigate the relationship between students’ self-efficacy and the writing strategies (metacognitive, effort regulation, cognitive, society, and affective strategies) that they use. A quantitative approach was employed, specifically the survey research design to determine the relationship between these two variables. A total of 147 university students from a public university in Selangor, Malaysia were involved in this study, who responded to a questionnaire distributed through online platforms. In general, the findings of this study found that generally students had high self-efficacy, and they employed various strategies in order to complete their writing tasks. The implication of this study is that while teaching writing strategies to students is helpful, students’ confidence and self-efficacy should also be raised in the teaching and learning process.

Self-efficacy, writing strategies, writing, writing tasks, tertiary education

1. Ahmad, N., Alias, F.A., Hamat, M., & Mohamed, S.A. (2024) Reliability analysis: Application of Cronbach’s Alpha in research instruments. SIG: e-L earning@CS, 114-119. https://appspenang.uitm.edu.my/sigcs/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Al-Jarrah, T. M., Al- Jarrah, J. M. M., Talafhah, R., & Ibrahim, B. (2019). Exploring the effect of metacognitive strategies on writing performance. Global Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 9(1), 33-50. https://doi.org/10.18844/gjflt.v9i1.3977 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Aluemalai, K., & Maniam, M. (2020). Writing strategies utilized by successful and unsuccessful ESL undergraduate students in writing classroom. Journal of English Language and Culture, 10(2), 100-110. https://journal.ubm.ac.id/index.php/english-language-culture/article/view/2140/1745 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Baharudin, F., Ramli, N. H. L., Habali, A. H. M., Azmi, A. A., & Rahmat, N. H. (2023). Process of writing: The challenges in writing skill among ESL learners. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 13(10), 33–52. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W.H. Freeman and Company. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Bui, H. P., Nguyen, L. T., & Nguyen, T. V. (2023). An investigation into EFL pre-service teachers' academic writing strategies. Heliyon, 9(3), e13743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13743 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Chen, A. (2022). The effects of writing strategy instruction on EFL learners’ writing development. English Language Teaching, 15, 29-37. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v15n3p29 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Cheng, L., & Zhang, L. J. (2024). Profiling L2 students' writing self-efficacy and its relationship with their writing strategies for self-regulated learning. System, 122, Article 103256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103256 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Cheng. S., Lin. C., Wei. D., & Chen. Y. (2026). A longitudinal psychological model of writing development: Interactions among self-efficacy, regulation, and anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 17, 1757045. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1757045 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Fajrina, D., Rustam, R., & Priyanto, P. (2023). Self-efficacy as a predictor of writing performance. Shelves Journal of English Language Teaching, 6(2), 132–141. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Flower, L. (1998). Problem-solving strategies for writing in college and community (1st ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition and Communication, 32(4), 365-387. https://doi.org/10.2307/356600 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Graham, S., Gillespie, A., & McKeown, D. (2013). Writing: Importance, development, and instruction. Reading and Writing, 26, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9395-2 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Han, L. (2024). Metacognitive writing strategy instruction in the EFL context: Focus on writing performance and motivation. SAGE Open, 14(2), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241257081 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. He, L. (2024) The Application of SPSS Correlation Analysis in the study of precision teaching of English in universities. Applied Mathematics and Nonlinear Science, 9(1), 1-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/amns-2024-1371 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Hwang, S. (2025). Unpacking the impact of writing feedback perception on self-regulated writing ability: The role of writing self-efficacy and self-regulated learning strategies. Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), 100. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020100 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Graham, S., Ng, C., Hebert, M., Santangelo, T., et al. (2025). Can teaching writing enhance students’ writing self-efficacy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 117(4), 559-581. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000923 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Khosravi, R., Dastgoshadeh, A., & Jalilzadeh, K. (2023). Writing metacognitive strategy-based instruction through flipped classroom: An investigation of writing performance and self-efficacy. Smart Learning Environments, 10(48). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-023-00264-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Kong, D., & Teng, M. F. (2024). Linguistic and genre performance self-efficacy as predictors of writing achievement. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 81, Article 101337. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Kong, Y., & Wang, C. (2022). The effects of self-efficacy on the use of self-regulated learning strategies and project-based writing performance. International Journal of English for Academic Purposes. https://doi.org/10.3828/ijeap.2022.3 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Nigussie, E., Yigzaw, A., & Amogne, D. (2024). EFL students' writing strategies, self-efficacy, and performance in Ethiopia: Exploring interrelationships. GIST – Education and Learning Research Journal. https://doi.org/10.26817/16925777.1812 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Pajares, F. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and achievement in writing: A review of the literature. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 19(2), 139–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/10573560308222 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Qin, C., Zhang, R., & Xiao, Y. (2022). A questionnaire-based validation of metacognitive strategies in writing and their predictive effects on the writing performance of EFL student writers. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1071907. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1071907 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Rahmat, N. H., Jasman, N. H., Yunos, D. R. M., Anuar, NA.K., & Mokhtar, M. I (2026) A study of social interaction as a mediating force in the composing process. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 10(2), 682-696. https://rsisinternational.org/journals/ijriss/uploads/vol10-iss2-pg682-696-202602_pdf.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Raoofi, S. Miri, A., Gharibi, J. & Malaki, B. (2017) Assessing and Validating a Writing Strategy Scale for Undergraduate Students. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol 8(3), pp 624-633. Retrieved from http://www.academypublication.com/issues2/jltr/vol08/03/23.pdf [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Shen, B., & Bai, B. (2024). Chinese university students' self-regulated writing strategy use and EFL writing performance: Influences of self-efficacy, gender, and major. Applied Linguistics Review, 15(1), 161–188. https://doi.org/10.1515/applirev-2020-0103 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Teng, M. F., & Huang, J. (2019). Self-regulated writing strategies and writing performance. Language Teaching Research, 23(4), 487–510. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Teng, M. F., Qin, C., & Wang, C. (2022). Validation of metacognitive academic writing strategies and the predictive effects on academic writing performance. Metacognition and Learning, 17, 167–190. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Teng, L. S., & Zhang, L. J. (2020). Empowering learners in the second/foreign language classroom: Can self-regulated learning strategies-based writing instruction make a difference? Journal of Second Language Writing, 48, 100701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2019.100701 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Vetter, T.R. (2017) Descriptive Statistics: Reporting the answers to the 5 basic questions of who, what, why, when, where, and a sixth, so what? Anesthesia & Analgesia, 1259(5), 1797-1802. https://doi.org/10.1213/ane.0000000000002471 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Zhang, H., Song, W., Shen, S., & Huang, R. (2014). The effects of blog-mediated peer feedback on learners’ motivation, collaboration, and course satisfaction in a second language writing course. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 30(6). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Zhang, L. J. (2022). Self-regulatory self-efficacy, feedback handling and motivational self-talk in L2 writing. System, 109, Article 102877. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. Zhang, J., & Zhang, L. J. (2024). Profiling L2 students’ writing self-efficacy and its relationship with their writing strategies for self-regulated learning. System, 122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103253 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. Zhu, P., & Sun, X. (2025). Investigating writing self-efficacy and writing self-regulated learning strategies across different writing proficiency levels in Chinese English majors: A mixed-methods study. SAGE Open, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251406353 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). Academic Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Assessment of the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Repositioning TVET for Economic Development in Nigeria
• Teachers’ Use of Assure Model Instructional Design on Learners’ Problem Solving Efficacy in Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya
• “E-Booksan Ang Kaalaman”: Development, Validation, and Utilization of Electronic Book in Academic Performance of Grade 9 Students in Social Studies
• Analyzing EFL University Students’ Academic Speaking Skills Through Self-Recorded Video Presentation
• Major Findings of The Study on Total Quality Management in Teachers’ Education Institutions (TEIs) In Assam – An Evaluative Study