Emotional/Psychological Abuse and Social Behavior among Secondary School Students in Rutongo Parish, Rwanda

ABSTRACT
Domestic violence remains a significant public health and human rights concern, with emotional and psychological abuse recognized as one of its most pervasive yet under-addressed forms, particularly among adolescents. This study investigated the impact of emotional/psychological abuse exposure on the social behavior of students in two selected secondary schools in Rutongo Parish, Rwanda. Anchored on Social Learning Theory and Ecological Systems Theory, the study adopted a mixed-methods approach using an explanatory sequential design. A sample of 273 students was drawn from a target population of 853 using stratified random sampling and Yamane's (1967) formula, while 27 students and key informants were purposively selected for qualitative interviews. Quantitative data were collected using a structured questionnaire and analyzed using descriptive statistics and ordinal logistic regression in SPSS version 23, while qualitative data were analyzed thematically. Findings revealed that 35.8% of respondents were exposed to verbal hostility between family members, 28.3% experienced fear during household conflicts, and 18.9% reported emotional neglect. Regression results showed that emotional neglect was the strongest and most consistent predictor of negative social behavior, significantly increasing the odds of aggression (OR = 1.51, p = .001), anger-control difficulties (OR = 1.46, p < .001), and school rule-breaking (OR = 1.50, p < .001), while sadness and anxiety also significantly predicted these outcomes. Qualitative narratives confirmed that emotionally abused students experienced withdrawal, low self-esteem, poor concentration, and reluctance to engage socially. The null hypothesis that emotional/psychological abuse exposure has no significant effect on social behavior was therefore partially rejected. The study concludes that emotional abuse, especially neglect, substantially undermines adolescents' psychosocial adjustment and recommends strengthened school-based counseling, parental sensitization, and family-centered interventions to mitigate its effects.

Counselling psychology

1. Bahati, C., Nyiranteziryayo, A., Izabayo, J., Atete, P., Sezibera, V., & Mutesa, L. (2024). Mental health outcomes of offspring exposed to parental intimate partner violence in Rwanda. BMC Pediatrics, 24(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-024-04884-y [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Bueso-Izquierdo, N., Guerrero-Molina, M., Barbosa-Torres, C., Ferrera-Silva, M., & Moreno-Manso, J. M. (2025). Psychological, emotional, and neuropsychological sequelae of child victims of domestic violence: A review of the literature. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-025-00746-6 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Castro, L., & Valle, Y. (2025). The effect of childhood emotional abuse on the mental health of Latinx adults. CSUSB ScholarWorks. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Caulfield, J. (2023, June 22). How to do thematic analysis: Step-by-step guide & examples. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/thematic-analysis/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Chen, C., Ji, S., & Jiang, J. (2022). Psychological abuse and social support in Chinese adolescents: The mediating effect of self-esteem. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.852256 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Ciren, Z., & Ong, E. (2026). Emotional abuse in childhood and social anxiety symptoms in adulthood: Examining the role of self-compassion. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-026-00870-x [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Daramola, C. O. (2025). Domestic violence and its effects on academic performance of secondary school students in Ikere-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. British Journal of Multidisciplinary and Advanced Studies, 6(1), 87–112. https://doi.org/10.37745/bjmas.2022.04240 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Gedi, O. S. (2024). The relationship between adverse childhood experiences and substance use among adolescents: The case of Garissa University, Garissa, Kenya. USIU-Africa Repository. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Guy-Evans, O. (2024). Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/Bronfenbrenner.html [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Hayes, A. (2024, August 19). How stratified random sampling works, with examples. Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/stratified_random_sampling.asp [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Huecker, M., Smock, W., King, K., & Jordan, G. (2023, April 9). Domestic violence. In StatPearls. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499891/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Karanja, D. N. (2019). Effects of domestic violence on students' academic performance in public day secondary schools in Tetu Sub-County, Nyeri County, Kenya [Master's thesis, University of Nairobi]. http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/107358 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Khanday, S. A., & Khanam, D. (2023, February 4). The research design. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368257495 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Makwana, D., Engineer, P., Dabhi, A., & Chudasama, H. (2023). Sampling methods in research: A review. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/371985656 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Margarida Simões, Teixeira, A., Sani, A. I., Monteiro, A. P., Martins, J. S., & Relva, I. C. (2024). Interparental violence and development of antisocial behaviors in Portuguese adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 163, 107706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2024.107706 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Mathews, B., & Dube, S. (2024). Childhood emotional abuse is becoming a public health priority: Evidentiary support for a paradigm change. Child Protection and Practice, 4, 100093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chipro.2024.100093 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. McCombes, S. (2021, June 7). How to create a research design. Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/research-design/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Mukasano, M., & Faustin, D. M. (2023). Effects of domestic violence on children's cognitive development in Rwanda: A case of Gasabo District. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10061260 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Nkadimeng, C., Mphasha, M. H., & Skaal, L. (2025). Broken silence: Unraveling the far-reaching effects of witnessing domestic violence on children in Limpopo province. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 12, 102115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.102115 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Nyagwencha, S., Munene, A., & James, N. (n.d.). Types of abuse experienced by adolescents living in charitable children's institutions in Nairobi County, Kenya. African Journal of Clinical Psychology. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Nyandwi, A., Nyirandutiye, F., Rusanganwa, V., Munyanshongore, C., Nyirazinyoye, L., Ndola, P., Nshimiyimana, J. D., Ingabire, M.-G., Anastasie, N., Salant, N., Mecthilde, K., Emmanuel, H., & Mukabutera, A. (2022). Predictors of physical violence against children in Rwanda: Findings from a national cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health, 22(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14815-0 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Oluigbo, C. U., Ngozi, E. C., & Patterson. (2024). Determination of sample sizes in research using Taro Yamane formula: An overview. Harnessing Current and Emerging Scientific Innovations for Nation Building and Development in the 21st Century. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Pietrangelo, A. (2019, March 29). Effects of emotional abuse: Short- and long-term, PTSD, recovery. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/effects-of-emotional-abuse [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Saunders, B., Sim, J., Kingstone, T., Baker, S., Waterfield, J., Bartlam, B., Burroughs, H., & Jinks, C. (2018). Saturation in qualitative research: Exploring its conceptualization and operationalization. Quality & Quantity, 52(4), 1893–1907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0574-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Sianko, N., Hedge, J. M., & McDonell, J. R. (2016). Differential adjustment among rural adolescents exposed to family violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(4), 712–740. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516645574 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Sutton, J. (2021, May 17). What is Bandura's social learning theory? 3 examples. PositivePsychology.com. https://positivepsychology.com/social-learning-theory-bandura/ [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Ugwu, L. E., Ramadie, K. J., Ajele, W. K., & Idemudia, E. S. (2024). Childhood adversity and peer influence in adolescent bullying perpetration. Scientific Reports, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-81978-8 [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. United Nations. (2025). What is domestic abuse? https://www.un.org/en/coronavirus/what-is-domestic-abuse [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Williams, O., Oyundoyin, B., & A., A. T. (2024). The impact of domestic violence on the academic performance of school-aged children and adolescents in Abeokuta South, Ogun State, Nigeria. African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Research, 7(4), 104–130. https://doi.org/10.52589/ajsshr-42u5i45f [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Assessment of the Role of Artificial Intelligence in Repositioning TVET for Economic Development in Nigeria
• Teachers’ Use of Assure Model Instructional Design on Learners’ Problem Solving Efficacy in Secondary Schools in Bungoma County, Kenya
• “E-Booksan Ang Kaalaman”: Development, Validation, and Utilization of Electronic Book in Academic Performance of Grade 9 Students in Social Studies
• Analyzing EFL University Students’ Academic Speaking Skills Through Self-Recorded Video Presentation
• Major Findings of The Study on Total Quality Management in Teachers’ Education Institutions (TEIs) In Assam – An Evaluative Study