A Comprehensive Supervision Framework for Pre-Service Teacher Development: Integrating Clinical, Developmental Approaches, Reflective Practices, and Technology

A Comprehensive Supervision Framework for Pre-Service Teacher Development: Integrating Clinical, Developmental Approaches, Reflective Practices, and Technology

Mohd Hassan Abdullah^*, Chamil Arkhasa Nikko Mazlan, Syakirah Samsudin, Raja Nor Safinas Raja Harun, Ashardi Abas, Sajastanah Imam Koning, Syaza Hazwani Zaini, Tajul Rosli bin Shuib, Nurul Bahiyah Abd Wahid

Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Tanjong Malim, Malaysia

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.803424S

Received: 04 December 2024; Accepted: 09 December 2024; Published: 18 December 2024

ABSTRACT

Effective supervision is essential for developing the teaching competencies and professional growth of pre-service teachers. This study proposes a unified supervision framework that combines clinical and developmental supervision approaches, reflective practices, and e-supervision tools to address the limitations of traditional models. The framework integrates four key components: Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) for collaborative learning, e-supervision for real-time and flexible feedback, mentor teacher supervision for personalized guidance, and supervisor lecturer involvement for comprehensive evaluation. A mixed-methods approach was used to explore the impact of this framework on pre-service teachers’ development. Surveys, interviews, and focus groups assessed the effectiveness of e-supervision tools, while reflective journals and professional discussions provided insights into the role of PLCs in fostering critical thinking and problem-solving. Findings reveal that e-supervision enhances the accessibility and timeliness of feedback, while PLCs encourage peer learning and collective problem-solving. Mentor teacher and supervisor lecturer feedback offer personalized and context-specific guidance, bridging the gap between immediate classroom challenges and long-term professional growth. The study highlights the importance of integrating traditional and digital supervision models to meet the evolving needs of teacher education in diverse educational contexts. The unified framework fosters a dynamic, collaborative, and reflective environment, equipping pre-service teachers with the skills and adaptability required for modern classrooms.

Keywords: Pre-service teacher development, E-supervision, Professional Learning Communities, Reflective practices,Teacher supervision framework

INTRODUCTION

The supervision of pre-service teachers during their teaching practice plays a pivotal role in shaping effective educators. Traditional models, which emphasize direct classroom observation and structured feedback, have been instrumental in improving immediate teaching performance. However, these approaches often fall short in addressing the multifaceted and evolving needs of pre-service teachers, especially in modern educational contexts that demand adaptability and the integration of technology (Sari & Maulidi, 2023). With increasing diversity in classroom settings and the prevalence of digital tools, pre-service teachers require supervision frameworks that go beyond immediate instructional improvements. Research highlights the need for more comprehensive supervision strategies that foster not only teaching competence but also reflective practices, collaborative learning, and long-term professional growth (Hamsa et al., 2022).

In response to these challenges, this study proposed a unified supervision framework designed to support pre-service teachers across multiple dimensions. By integrating clinical and developmental supervision approaches, the framework ensures a balance between immediate feedback and sustained professional development. Reflective journaling and action research are incorporated to enhance critical self-assessment and problem-solving skills, while e-supervision leverages digital tools to provide real-time, flexible feedback and support. Additionally, the framework emphasizes collaboration through Professional Learning Communities (PLCs), fostering a shared learning environment where pre-service teachers and mentors engage in collective problem-solving and professional dialogue. This multifaceted approach ensures that pre-service teachers are equipped not only to address immediate classroom challenges but also to adapt to diverse and dynamic educational landscapes, positioning them for success in their teaching careers (Renshaw, 2021; Zhang & Zhang, 2023).

RESEARCH PROBLEM

Supervision models in teacher education are pivotal for shaping the skills and professional development of pre-service teachers. However, traditional supervision approaches have struggled to keep pace with the rapidly evolving educational landscapes and the increasing reliance on digital technologies. The rise of online learning, hybrid classrooms, and digital tools has posed new challenges to pre-service teacher education programs, as conventional face-to-face supervision models often fail to fully leverage these technological advancements (Borko et al., 2021). Furthermore, pre-service teachers are now expected to engage with a more diverse array of learners in varied educational contexts, including urban, rural, and international settings, requiring more flexible and context-sensitive approaches to supervision (Jones & Richards, 2022).

The Limitations of Traditional Supervision Models

Traditional models of teacher supervision predominantly focus on clinical and developmental approaches. Clinical supervision involves direct classroom observation, feedback, and structured reflection cycles, which aim to improve teachers’ immediate instructional effectiveness (Glickman et al., 2020). On the other hand, developmental supervision emphasizes long-term professional growth and the cultivation of teaching competencies through mentorship, collaborative activities, and professional development workshops (Zepeda, 2023). While these models have proven effective in fostering initial teacher development, they tend to be limited in addressing the flexibility required for modern education. For instance, in clinical supervision, feedback is often delayed due to logistical challenges such as scheduling or the need for on-site presence. This limitation hinders the timeliness of feedback, which is critical for pre-service teachers trying to apply lessons learned in real time.

Moreover, the traditional developmental supervision model can be constrained by a lack of real-time interaction, especially in virtual learning contexts, and the infrequency of formal mentoring opportunities. As a result, pre-service teachers may not always have the support they need to respond to classroom challenges in a timely manner (Sari & Maulidi, 2023). With the growing integration of technology in education, it is essential to explore how these traditional models can be enhanced by e-supervision and digital tools, which can provide more immediate, flexible, and reflective feedback.

The Role of E-Supervision in Enhancing Teacher Supervision

E-supervision—supervision through digital platforms—has emerged as a promising solution to the limitations of traditional models. By integrating video analysis, online feedback platforms, and digital discussion forums, e-supervision provides pre-service teachers with the flexibility to engage in self-reflection and receive real-time, constructive feedback from supervisors and peers (Renshaw, 2021). Research has demonstrated that e-supervision can significantly enhance the quality and frequency of feedback, thus improving teachers’ pedagogical practices (Leong & Tan, 2022). Video-based e-supervision, for example, allows supervisors to observe teaching sessions remotely, providing a valuable alternative when physical presence in the classroom is not feasible due to geographical or time constraints. Furthermore, pre-service teachers can replay and analyse their lessons, engaging in reflective practice that encourages critical self-assessment and professional growth (Zhang & Zhang, 2023).

However, the use of e-supervision tools must be thoughtfully integrated with traditional supervision approaches to ensure a holistic development of pre-service teachers. E-supervision is not a replacement for in-person observation but rather complements it by offering additional opportunities for reflection and feedback (Chong & Yeo, 2021). Thus, the research problem addressed in this study sought to bridge the gap between clinical and developmental approaches by proposing a unified supervision framework that integrates e-supervision tools while maintaining the strengths of face-to-face supervision.

The Impact of Professional Learning Communities (PLCs)

In addition to integrating technology into teacher supervision, Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) have gained prominence as a collaborative and reflective approach to teacher development. PLCs are groups of educators who regularly meet to share experiences, discuss best practices, and engage in collective learning. These communities have been shown to foster a culture of collaboration, which is particularly important for pre-service teachers who may otherwise feel isolated during their practicum experiences (Vescio et al., 2022). By incorporating PLCs into the supervision framework, pre-service teachers can benefit from peer support, ongoing feedback, and shared learning opportunities that enhance their professional development.

PLCs provide a space for pre-service teachers to discuss challenges they face in the classroom, engage in peer observation, and reflect on their practices (Pella et al., 2023). This collaborative environment encourages the exchange of ideas and resources, which can be critical for pre-service teachers working in diverse educational settings. Research has shown that PLCs can promote critical thinking, increase teacher motivation, and improve teaching effectiveness by fostering a shared responsibility for professional growth among both pre-service teachers and their mentors (Vescio et al., 2022). The integration of PLCs within the supervision framework thus contributes to the long-term professional development of teachers, complementing the immediate feedback provided through clinical supervision and e-supervision.

Designing a Unified Supervision Framework

To address the limitations of traditional supervision models, the proposed unified supervision framework integrates clinical supervision, developmental supervision, e-supervision, and Professional Learning Communities. This integrated approach not only enhances the flexibility and timeliness of feedback but also encourages reflective practice and ongoing professional dialogue. By incorporating e-supervision tools such as video analysis and online feedback platforms, the framework enables pre-service teachers to receive continuous support while engaging in real-time reflection and self-assessment. At the same time, the framework maintains the benefits of in-person observation and mentorship, ensuring that pre-service teachers receive personalized guidance based on their individual needs.

Furthermore, the inclusion of PLCs promotes a collaborative approach to teacher development, allowing pre-service teachers to engage with their peers and mentors in a shared learning process. This collaborative environment fosters a sense of belonging and professional growth, which is essential for pre-service teachers working in diverse educational contexts. The framework, therefore, provides a holistic approach to teacher supervision that addresses both immediate teaching challenges and long-term professional development needs.

The integration of e-supervision, clinical and developmental supervision approaches, and Professional Learning Communities represents a significant step forward in the evolution of teacher supervision models. By combining traditional practices with modern technology and collaborative learning structures, the proposed unified supervision framework offers a flexible, adaptive, and reflective approach to teacher development. As pre-service teachers navigate increasingly complex educational landscapes, this integrated framework ensures that they receive the support and feedback necessary for their success both in the classroom and throughout their professional careers.

Research Objectives:

1. To assess the limitations of traditional supervision models in teacher education, particularly clinical and developmental approaches, in responding to the evolving educational landscape and the increasing integration of technology in teaching and learning.
2. To explore the potential of e-supervision tools (e.g., video analysis, online feedback platforms) in enhancing the flexibility, timeliness, and quality of feedback during the pre-service teaching practice, addressing the constraints of traditional face-to-face supervision methods.
3. To design a unified supervision framework that integrates clinical and developmental supervision models with e-supervision tools, aiming to balance immediate feedback with long-term professional development in teacher education.
4. To investigate the role of Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) in supporting collaborative learning and fostering professional development among pre-service teachers, especially in diverse educational contexts, and how PLCs can be integrated into the proposed supervision framework.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study employed a mixed-methods research design to assess, explore, and design effective supervision models that integrate traditional and modern approaches, including the use of e-supervision tools and Professional Learning Communities (PLCs). The methodology was designed to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the research problem and to provide actionable recommendations for improving teacher supervision frameworks.

1. Research Design

The study utilized a mixed-methods design, combining quantitative and qualitative approaches to gather both numerical data and in-depth insights from pre-service teachers, mentors, and supervisors. This approach facilitated a robust analysis of both the effectiveness and experiences associated with traditional and e-supervision models.

• Quantitative Research: Surveys and questionnaires were distributed to pre-service teachers, mentors, and supervisors to assess the effectiveness and limitations of current supervision models, as well as the perceived impact of e-supervision tools and PLCs.
• Qualitative Research: Interviews, focus groups, and document analysis were conducted to gain deeper insights into the experiences of participants with traditional and e-supervision models, as well as their perceptions of PLCs as a collaborative learning tool.

2. Participants

The participants included:

• Pre-service teachers enrolled in teacher education programs.
• Mentor teachers who provided guidance and supervision to pre-service teachers in the classroom.
• University supervisors who oversaw the overall teaching practice of pre-service teachers.

A purposive sampling method was used to select participants who were actively involved in the teaching practice process and had experience with both traditional and digital supervision approaches.

3. Data Collection Methods

Objective 1: Assessing the Limitations of Traditional Supervision Models

• Survey/Questionnaire: A structured questionnaire was distributed to pre-service teachers, mentors, and supervisors to gather data on the challenges and limitations of traditional clinical and developmental supervision models. The questions focused on aspects such as feedback timeliness, effectiveness, and adaptability to diverse educational contexts (Glickman et al., 2020).
• Interviews: Semi-structured interviews with pre-service teachers and mentors were conducted to explore their perspectives on the traditional models and how well they addressed the demands of modern teaching practices (Zepeda, 2023).

Objective 2: Exploring the Potential of E-Supervision Tools

• E-Supervision Implementation: Pre-service teachers engaged with e-supervision tools (e.g., video recordings of lessons, online feedback platforms) during their teaching practice. They used these tools for self-assessment and to receive feedback from mentors and supervisors (Leong & Tan, 2022).
• Survey: A post-intervention survey was administered to pre-service teachers, mentors, and supervisors to assess their perceptions of the flexibility, timeliness, and quality of feedback received through e-supervision tools (Renshaw, 2021).
• Focus Groups: Focus groups with pre-service teachers were organized to discuss their experiences with e-supervision tools, including how these tools influenced their teaching practices and professional development (Chong & Yeo, 2021).

Objective 3: Designing a Unified Supervision Framework

• Document Analysis: Existing supervision frameworks were analysed to identify the components of clinical and developmental supervision models. Based on the findings, a comprehensive, integrated supervision framework was designed (Borko et al., 2021).
• Workshops and Expert Panels: Workshops involving supervisors, mentors, and university faculty were held to review the proposed framework. Feedback was gathered to refine and finalize the design of the unified supervision model (Jones & Richards, 2022).

Objective 4: Investigating the Role of PLCs

• Survey: Pre-service teachers, mentors, and supervisors completed a survey to measure the effectiveness of PLCs in fostering collaborative learning and supporting professional development. The survey examined factors such as peer support, shared learning, and the impact on teaching effectiveness (Vescio et al., 2022).
• Focus Groups: Pre-service teachers participated in focus group discussions to explore their experiences with PLCs and how these communities contributed to their professional growth and problem-solving capabilities in diverse classroom settings (Pella et al., 2023).
• Case Studies: Case studies of PLCs were conducted within participating schools, documenting the interactions and collaborative learning processes within these communities. This provided a detailed view of how PLCs contributed to teacher development and how they could be integrated into the proposed supervision framework (Vescio et al., 2022).

4. Data Analysis

• Quantitative Data: Descriptive statistics were used to analyse survey responses regarding the limitations of traditional supervision models, the effectiveness of e-supervision tools, and the role of PLCs. Inferential statistical tests (e.g., chi-square tests, t-tests) were employed to determine any significant differences in the experiences of pre-service teachers, mentors, and supervisors (Zhang & Zhang, 2023).
• Qualitative Data: Thematic analysis was applied to interview transcripts, focus group discussions, and case study documents. This helped identify recurring themes and patterns related to the strengths and weaknesses of existing supervision models, the role of e-supervision, and the impact of PLCs (Sari & Maulidi, 2023).

5. Ethical Considerations

The research adhered to ethical guidelines to ensure the safety and privacy of participants. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and their identities were kept confidential. Participation was voluntary, and participants had the right to withdraw from the study at any point without consequence. Ethical approval was sought from the relevant institutional review board (IRB).

This methodology ensured that the research addressed the core objectives by gathering comprehensive data from a variety of sources, allowing for a detailed examination of the current challenges and potential solutions in teacher supervision.

FINDINGS

This section presents the findings from the study on a unified teacher supervision framework that integrates traditional supervision models with e-supervision tools, aiming to address the limitations of conventional supervision approaches in the evolving educational landscape. The study explored how Professional Learning Communities (PLCs), e-supervision, and a combination of in-class and remote feedback mechanisms can enhance the professional development of pre-service teachers. Through the analysis of key components—PLCs, e-supervision, mentor teacher supervision, and supervisor lecturer feedback—the findings highlight the benefits of a flexible, collaborative, and technology-enhanced supervision framework. These findings provide valuable insights into how such an integrated approach can foster immediate improvements in teaching practices while supporting long-term professional growth in diverse educational contexts.

Table 1 Structure of Supervision for Pre-Service Teachers

Note: PLC = Professional Learning Community.

1. Professional Learning Community (PLC)

The inclusion of Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) within the supervision framework fostered a collaborative learning environment for pre-service teachers and their mentors. Pre-service teachers were required to engage in various reflective activities, such as videotaping and analysing two of their teaching sessions, conducting action research on practical classroom challenges, and maintaining weekly reflective journals. These activities encouraged continuous reflection and critical thinking. Additionally, the organization of three professional discussions provided a platform for discussing common teaching challenges, thus promoting peer learning and collaborative problem-solving (Vescio et al., 2022). The PLC approach helped pre-service teachers engage with their peers and mentors, enhancing their professional dialogue and creating a shared responsibility for their growth. The evidence indicated that the PLC component significantly contributed to the development of pre-service teachers’ pedagogical skills and reflective practices, particularly through the exchange of experiences and peer-supported problem-solving.

2. E-Supervision

The integration of e-supervision into the supervision framework proved to be an effective tool in enhancing the flexibility and accessibility of feedback for pre-service teachers. Pre-service teachers were asked to record and upload their teaching sessions to the online Practicum Portal, where they received asynchronous feedback from mentors and supervisors. The portal also enabled five online discussions, allowing for the addressing of common teaching challenges and the sharing of potential solutions. The asynchronous nature of the platform allowed pre-service teachers to receive feedback regardless of geographical location or time constraints, particularly important in remote or hybrid learning environments. This approach also fostered self-reflection, as pre-service teachers had the opportunity to critically analyze their teaching sessions and compare their self-assessment with the feedback provided. The use of video analysis and online discussions enhanced the immediacy of feedback and supported ongoing reflective practice, which was identified as critical for improving teaching practices (Renshaw, 2021).

3. Supervision by Mentor Teacher

Supervision by mentor teachers involved direct in-class observations and real-time feedback. Mentor teachers observed a total of three teaching sessions from each pre-service teacher and provided feedback using a structured five-phase supervision cycle: observation, feedback, reflection, development, and follow-up (Larrivee, 2021). This cycle enabled mentor teachers to provide immediate, actionable feedback tailored to the specific strengths and weaknesses of pre-service teachers. The real-time feedback from mentor teachers was particularly beneficial in addressing immediate teaching challenges and providing personalized guidance for improvement. Pre-service teachers reported that this form of supervision allowed them to implement feedback promptly and see tangible improvements in their teaching practices. However, the limited number of in-class observations was noted as a constraint in providing consistent ongoing support throughout the entire practicum.

4. Supervision by Supervisor Lecturer

The role of the supervisor lecturer was integral in combining both in-class supervision and e-supervision methods. Supervisor lecturers conducted two in-class observations, which were followed by two e-supervision sessions for each pre-service teacher. This dual approach provided both immediate and reflective feedback, which encouraged pre-service teachers to engage in continuous self-assessment and professional growth (Korthagen et al., 2023). The in-class observations allowed for direct interaction and immediate feedback, while the e-supervision sessions provided the opportunity for further reflection and engagement with feedback in a more flexible manner. Additionally, supervisor lecturers organized professional discussions that addressed challenges encountered during the practicum, allowing pre-service teachers to reflect collectively and learn from one another’s experiences. This combination of supervision methods ensured a comprehensive approach to teacher development, addressing both short-term teaching needs and long-term professional growth.

The integration of PLCs, e-supervision tools, and a combination of in-class and online supervision by mentors and supervisor lecturers provided a comprehensive supervision framework that addressed both immediate teaching challenges and long-term professional development needs. The findings suggested that the combination of these approaches enhanced pre-service teachers’ reflective practices, improved the timeliness of feedback, and fostered collaborative learning. Furthermore, the flexibility of e-supervision tools, along with the personalized and immediate feedback from mentors and supervisor lecturers, supported the professional growth of pre-service teachers in diverse and dynamic educational contexts. These findings indicate that a unified supervision framework, incorporating traditional and digital approaches, can effectively support the development of pre-service teachers in the evolving landscape of education.

Discussion: Integrating Professional Learning Communities, E-Supervision, and Mentor Supervision in Teacher Development

The evolving landscape of teacher education increasingly emphasizes the need for comprehensive supervision frameworks that blend traditional methods with digital tools. This discussion explores the research findings on Professional Learning Communities (PLCs), e-supervision, and supervision by mentor teachers and supervisor lecturers, highlighting their impact on pre-service teacher development and the enhancement of reflective practices, pedagogical skills, and collaborative learning.

1. Professional Learning Communities (PLCs)

The integration of Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) into the supervision framework has been identified as a key strategy for enhancing collaborative learning and peer-supported problem-solving among pre-service teachers. According to Vescio et al. (2022), PLCs foster an environment where pre-service teachers engage in reflective practices, analyze teaching videos, conduct action research, and maintain reflective journals. These activities not only promote continuous self-reflection but also facilitate critical thinking and peer learning.

Research supports the notion that PLCs enhance pre-service teachers’ pedagogical development through the exchange of experiences and ideas (Hord, 2021). By creating a shared learning space, PLCs encourage pre-service teachers to collaboratively address teaching challenges and improve their practice through feedback from peers and mentors. This collaborative structure aligns with constructivist principles, which suggest that learning is enhanced when it is socially situated and involves active engagement with others (Vygotsky, 1978). Additionally, the importance of collective responsibility in teacher growth cannot be overstated. Darling-Hammond et al. (2020) argue that teacher collaboration significantly contributes to improved teaching quality, especially when mentors and peers work together to solve pedagogical problems.

However, while the benefits of PLCs are clear, they require careful implementation to ensure active participation and sustained engagement among pre-service teachers. Challenges such as varying levels of participation and access to resources can limit the effectiveness of PLCs in some contexts (Hord, 2021).

2. E-Supervision: Flexibility and Accessibility

E-Supervision, which involves using digital tools such as video analysis and online feedback systems, has become an indispensable component of modern teacher development frameworks. Research by Renshaw (2021) highlights how e-supervision enhances flexibility and accessibility of feedback for pre-service teachers, especially in remote or hybrid learning environments. The online practicum portal facilitated the uploading of teaching videos, allowing pre-service teachers to receive asynchronous feedback from mentors and supervisors at their convenience.

E-supervision’s primary strength lies in its ability to overcome the temporal and geographical constraints of traditional face-to-face supervision. As Renshaw (2021) notes, asynchronous feedback offers teachers the flexibility to reflect on their practices before responding to mentor comments, thereby encouraging deeper self-reflection. This form of supervision also aligns with the growing body of research suggesting that self-regulated learning—where teachers are responsible for their own professional development through ongoing reflection—is a critical factor in improving teaching practices (Zimmerman, 2002).

Recent studies have shown that e-supervision platforms provide timely feedback and promote a continuous learning cycle, where pre-service teachers engage in iterative processes of self-assessment, feedback application, and reflection (Liu et al., 2023). The inclusion of video analysis and online discussions further supports pre-service teachers in navigating common classroom challenges, allowing them to learn from peers and receive practical suggestions for improvement. Yet, challenges remain in terms of technological accessibility and digital literacy, which can limit the effectiveness of e-supervision for some teacher candidates, particularly those in low-resource settings (Kennedy, 2022).

3. Supervision by Mentor Teacher

Supervision by mentor teachers remains a cornerstone of teacher development. Through direct in-class observations and real-time feedback, mentors play a crucial role in the professional growth of pre-service teachers. The five-phase supervision cycle—comprising observation, feedback, reflection, development, and follow-up—provides a structured approach for mentors to deliver personalized and actionable feedback (Larrivee, 2021). Research shows that this immediate feedback is particularly valuable, as it allows pre-service teachers to address teaching challenges on the spot and see quick improvements in their practice.

According to Larrivee (2021), the immediate nature of mentor feedback is essential for bridging the gap between theory and practice. This process encourages real-time adjustments and fosters a more dynamic learning environment. However, the limited number of in-class observations—typically restricted to three sessions per pre-service teacher—poses a challenge. The frequency of observations has been identified as a key factor in developing effective teaching skills (Smith & Levitt, 2022), and mentor teachers often find themselves constrained by time and availability, limiting the overall impact of the mentorship.

Further research suggests that more frequent and sustained observations, coupled with ongoing feedback throughout the practicum, would enhance the mentor-mentee relationship and provide a more robust supervisory framework (Smith & Levitt, 2022). This highlights the importance of balancing in-person mentoring with digital tools, such as e-supervision, to provide continuous feedback throughout the teacher development process.

4. Supervision by Supervisor Lecturer

The integration of supervision by supervisor lecturers, combining both in-class observations and e-supervision, represents a dual approach that has proven effective in providing both immediate and reflective feedback. The combination of in-person and digital supervision methods encourages pre-service teachers to engage in both real-time improvement and long-term professional development (Korthagen et al., 2023). By conducting two in-class observations followed by two e-supervision sessions, supervisor lecturers ensure that pre-service teachers receive a balanced approach to feedback, addressing both short-term teaching needs and fostering ongoing growth.

Research has shown that this hybrid approach allows for a more comprehensive development process, where pre-service teachers can receive immediate, actionable feedback while also engaging in deep reflection over time. The inclusion of professional discussions also plays a pivotal role in allowing teachers to share experiences, learn from one another, and collaboratively address challenges (Korthagen et al., 2023). This communal aspect of supervision promotes peer learning, which is essential for the professional growth of pre-service teachers.

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

The integration of Professional Learning Communities (PLCs), e-supervision, and a combination of mentor and supervisor lecturer supervision offers a comprehensive and dynamic framework for pre-service teacher development. This multifaceted approach promotes continuous reflection, fosters collaborative learning, and provides flexible, accessible feedback, effectively addressing both immediate teaching challenges and long-term professional growth. PLCs support peer collaboration and problem-solving, encouraging critical reflection, while e-supervision enhances accessibility and feedback flexibility, especially in remote or hybrid environments. Furthermore, the mentorship provided through in-class observations, along with reflective e-supervision, creates a balanced feedback loop that supports the continuous improvement of teaching practices.

However, challenges remain, including unequal participation in PLCs, limited in-class observations, and technological barriers that may hinder the full potential of the supervision framework. To maximize the effectiveness of this approach, several suggestions can be implemented:

1. Enhance PLC Engagement: To increase the impact of PLCs, it is crucial to ensure active and equitable participation from all members. Structured guidelines, regular reflection activities, and encouragement from mentors can help foster more consistent and meaningful engagement in PLC discussions and collaborative problem-solving.
2. Increase the Frequency of Mentor Observations: The effectiveness of mentor observations can be further maximized by increasing their frequency throughout the practicum. More sustained in-class observations will allow mentors to provide continuous, real-time feedback, offering pre-service teachers timely and actionable guidance.
3. Improve Technological Access and Literacy: To ensure equitable access to e-supervision, teacher education programs should focus on digital literacy training for both pre-service teachers and mentors. Ensuring that all participants have access to the necessary technology and the skills to navigate digital platforms will make e-supervision more effective, especially in resource-limited contexts.
4. Facilitate Hybrid Supervision Models: Combining in-person observations with digital feedback creates a hybrid supervision model that offers the benefits of both immediate support and reflective, flexible feedback. This dual approach can better support pre-service teachers by providing comprehensive guidance throughout their development.
5. Incorporate Peer Learning in Feedback Loops: Encouraging peer feedback alongside mentor and supervisor feedback can enrich the reflective process. By incorporating more peer-reviewed teaching sessions, both in PLCs and online forums, pre-service teachers can gain diverse perspectives and develop a more holistic view of their strengths and areas for improvement.

By implementing these suggestions, teacher education programs can enhance their supervision frameworks, ensuring that pre-service teachers receive robust, ongoing support that fosters their pedagogical and reflective growth. Such an integrated approach will better equip pre-service teachers to navigate the complexities of modern classrooms and contribute meaningfully to the ongoing evolution of education.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to acknowledge and express their sincere gratitude to Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris (UPSI) for their invaluable support in funding this research through the Research Management and Innovation Centre (RMIC). This research was made possible by the Strategic Research Grant Scheme, Project Code: 2023-0061-106-01. Without this financial support, the completion of this study would not have been possible. We are deeply appreciative of the university’s commitment to advancing research in the field of teacher education.

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