A Mixed Methods Study on Goal Pursuit, Goal Attainment and Subjective Well-Being during Adolescence and Young Adulthood

A Mixed Methods Study on Goal Pursuit, Goal Attainment and Subjective Well-Being during Adolescence and Young Adulthood

Dr. Mary Jane A. Galang

De La Salle University, Manila

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2023.701011

Received: 06 September 2023; Revised: 16 September 2023; Accepted: 20 September 2023; Published: 25 October 2023

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this mixed methods sequential explanatory study was to investigate the effects of independent goal pursuit, interdependent goal pursuit, independent goal attainment, and interdependent goal attainment on subjective well-being among Filipinos and the moderation interaction of developmental levels (e.g., adolescence and young adulthood) in these effects. In the quantitative study, four measures: SWLS, PANAS-X, Goal Motivation Scale, and Goal Progress Scale were administered to 218 adolescents and young adults from Mindanao. The Path analysis technique was used to test the effects of independent goal pursuit, interdependent goal pursuit, independent goal attainment and interdependent goal attainment on subjective well- being, and the moderation interaction of developmental levels on these effects. Subjective well- being was measured in terms of satisfaction with life (SWLS), positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA). Results of the study indicated that the moderation model of developmental levels on goal pursuit and goal attainment with SWLS tested attained a good and perfect fit (x²/df = 2.34;

RMSEA = .044; GFI =0.920; SRMR = 0.06); the moderation model of developmental levels on goal pursuit and goal attainment on PA tested attained a good and perfect fit (x²/df = 2.75;

RMSEA = .051; GFI =0.915; SRMR = 0.08); and the moderation model of developmental levels on goal pursuit and goal attainment on NA tested attained a good and perfect fit (x²/df = 2.91;

RMSEA = .054; GFI =0.912; SRMR = 0.09). Independent goal pursuit predicted SWL, PA and NA; interdependent goal pursuit predicted SWL; independent goal attainment predicted SWL, PA, and NA; and interdependent goal attainment predicted NA. Findings revealed significant moderation interactions on the following: effect of independent goal pursuit on SWL, PA, and NA among Filipino adolescents; effect of interdependent goal pursuit on SWL among Filipino young adults; effect of independent goal attainment on SWL, PA, and NA among Filipino young adults; and effect of interdependent goal attainment on NA among Filipino adolescents. In the qualitative study, 10 Filipino adolescents and 10 Filipino young adults selected by a purposive sampling were included in the multiple case studies to explore their personal views, experiences, and goals in goal pursuit and goal attainment in relation to happiness. Convergences and divergences of goals, goal pursuits, and goal attainment linked with happiness were found among Filipinos during adolescence and young adulthood. The quantitative and qualitative findings of the study are discussed with reference to prior research. Implications for counseling practice and recommendations are provided.

Key Words: Independent Goal Pursuit, Interdependent Goal Pursuit, Independent Goal Attainment, Interdependent Goal Attainment, Subjective Well-Being.

INTRODUCTION AND RELATED LITERATURE

What is it that makes people happy? What are some factors that enhance peoples’ well- being? Positive psychology has these core questions to ask (Yamaguchi, 2011). It has been very recent that well-being was regarded as a scientific topic (Frey & Stutzer, 2002) despite the fact that happiness is considered the ultimate goal for many people. Positive psychology, a new research field has emerged in the past few decades that focus on positive human functioning (Seligman & Csikszentmihayi, 2000). There are two categories of factors, e.g., internal and external, influencing well-being, that research in positive psychology has revealed (Layard, 2005). In comparison, the internal factors include motivation, attitude, personal values, and goals, which come from within an individual whereas the external factors are income, culture, education, health, and age which have little effects on well-being.

This study examines one of the internal factors, i.e., life goals or personal goals, specifically on pursuit and attainment of goals as predictors of subjective well-being (SWB). People usually discuss life goals and wishes for the future to describe their ideas about living a happy and meaningful life (Ingrid et al., 2009). Accordingly, peoples’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are associated to what they value and aspire; hence, they focus on the attainment of goals. Notably, Oishi (2000) contends that when individuals place great importance on a life domain, they achieve and maintain their well-being. Emmons (1996) distinguishes individuals with important goals feel happier from those without such goals. In the same manner, individuals who are happy give importance to goals and believe that they can attain those goals.

As the goal theories of motivation would presume, people are driven to act or behave in particular ways in order to achieve a goal (Latham, 2000). According to Locke (1991) the person can use various strategies that would lead to goal attainment. Consequently, people feel happiness when they make reasonable progress toward realizing their goals that give meaning and structure to their lives (Lazarus, 1991).

Goals have been studied extensively since the 1980’s (Pervin, 1989) and considerable progress has been made to understand how goals contribute to long-term well-being (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Karoly, 1999). Individuals strive to attain goals that serve as ideal states (Carver et al., 1996; Carver & Scheier, 1987; Higgins, 1981; Higgins et al., 1995). Previous works of researchers around the world have actually presented the types of goals that lead to peoples’ happiness and enhance both physical and mental well-being (Schmuck, Sheldon & Csikszentmihalyi, 2001).

Studies (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996) have distinguished between two types of goals, namely: goals that serve intrinsic needs and goals that serve less inherently satisfying needs. In their studies, extrinsic goals are negatively related to well-being and positively associated with anxiety, depression, and narcissism. These are financial success and physical attractiveness.

Alternatively, intrinsic goals are consistent with human nature and needs, involving personal growth, emotional intimacy and community service (Kasser & Ryan, 2001). In Kasser & Ryan (1996) findings have shown the positive association between intrinsic goals and higher levels of subjective well-being (SWB). Indeed, goals are considered as key integrative and analytic units in the study of human motivation (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Karoly, 1999).

Motivation drives an individual to move toward a goal (Harland, 2012). Furthermore, motivation can be either intrinsic, if it comes from within the self, or extrinsic, if an external stimulus is present. In a more recent study the researchers (Oishi & Diener, 2009) adapted the definition of Sheldon and Kasser (1998) and used the term “interdependent” goal pursuit for an extrinsic reason in pursing goals while the term “independent” goal pursuit for an intrinsic reason in pursuing goals. In their study, goal attainment showed a very positive effect for individuals who used intrinsic reason (i.e., for the enjoyment and fun that it provides) in pursuing their goals but not for those with extrinsic reason.

A study (Carver & Bainard, 1998) reported that goals pursued either for independent (intrinsic) or interdependent (extrinsic) motives have both an effect on well-being. Previous studies have shown that extrinsic goal pursuit (or interdependent goal pursuit) is not related to well-being (Vansteenkiste et al., in press). Accordingly, these results explain why intrinsic (independent) and extrinsic (interdependent) goal pursuits vary in their relations to well-being. In recent years, substantial studies (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Emmons, 1999; Pomaki & Maes, 2002) focused on the causal associations between goals and resultant feelings of satisfaction. In Ryan and colleages (1996) there is greater satisfaction of the basic psychological needs in the pursuit and attainment of some life goals than the pursuit and attainment of others. Thus, goals that provide greater satisfaction are found to be linked with greater well-being.

Research has shown that goal attainment links with life satisfaction (Emmons, 1986).Consistently, Brunstein (1993) reported goal attainment associates with positive emotional experience. Moreover, previous study on goal attainment against the background of culture was done (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). In this study, the authors explained the interconnected nature of goals in an interdependent culture. In confirmation, findings of another research revealed that children who enjoyed more the anagram and math problems were those placed in an imposed condition, chosen by their mothers or classmates, than those in a free-choice condition (Iyenger and Lepper, 1999). In Sheldon & Kasser (1998) goals are reported as predictors of changes in well-being across different cultures. Another study (Triandis, 1995) revealed the types of goals that people pursue vary depending on their culture. A more recent study (Oishi & Diener, 2009) has investigated both independent and interdependent goal pursuits and its role in subjective well-being among Asian and American college students. Results of this study have revealed that Asians found to be more prone to interdependent goal pursuit increased the benefit of goal attainment on SWB whereas the independent goal pursuit was salient among the European Americans. Existing research points to the function of motivation as tailored by culture in an important way.

In an article, the authors (Deci & Ryan, 2000) stated that varied processes (why) and content (what) in the pursuit and attainment of goals is important in predicting behavioral quality and mental health. Notably, several studies on the relations of goal-wellbeing among individuals focused on cultural differences. It is evident that findings of past studies on goals and subjective well-being indicate gaps and a non-existent literature on goal pursuit, goal attainment and subjective well-being in the context of development.

Moreover, existing research points to an inconsistent positive linkage between goal progress and well-being and thus, suggests an examination of potential moderators (Pomaki et al., 2009). According to some authors (Wu & Zumbo, 2007) the methodology of moderation is commonly used in research such as in social science, health, psychology, and education.

The current study extends an effort to examine the potential moderation effect of developmental levels (e.g., adolescence and young adulthood) in the effects of goal pursuit and goal attainment on the subjective well-being (SWB) among Filipinos. According to researchers (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Holmbeck, 1997) a moderator variable specifies under what conditions a predictor variable can influence a criterion variable. As stated, the moderator variable indicates “when” and “for whom” a predictor or independent variable causes a criterion or dependent variable. Further, as a moderator variable, it can either enhance or reduce the direction of the relationship between the two variables (e.g., predictor and criterion), or it can even change the direction of such relationship, either from positive to negative or vice versa (Lindley & Walker, 1993). Typically, the moderating effect is reported as the interaction between the predictor and moderator variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Aldwin, 1994; Holmbeck, 1997). West and colleagues (1996) contend that the measurement of the moderator can be either on a continuous scale (e.g., value of self-confidence) or a categorical scale (e.g., gender). Therefore, this study seeks to ascertain that the effects of goal pursuit and goal attainment on SWB vary depending on the developmental levels (e.g., adolescence and young adulthood) among Filipinos.

Considering the various development tasks of individuals facing adolescence and young adulthood, several authors (Covington, 2000; Dowson & McInerney, 2003; Boekaerts et al., 2006) in motivation believe that it is typical for the individuals to pursue different goals more or less at one time. Indeed, goals evolve as the person experiences and deals with changes in life events. Studies (Cross & Markus, 1991; Nurmi, 1992) have shown differences in individual goals reflecting different age groups as an outcome of varying developmental tasks and the opportunities faced by particular age groups. Thus, age-graded demands and opportunities influence how people construct personal goals according to the life-span theory of motivation (Little et al., 2007; Nurmi, 1991, 1992). As individuals adapt to social environment, consequently, they adopt different goals (Emmons, 1986; Sheldon & Kasser, 1995).

Several empirical studies were created using both quantitative designs (Malkoc, 2011; Toner et al., 2012; Parks et al., 2012; Tkach & Lyubomirsky, 2006; Ganesan & Reyes, 2011) and qualitative designs (Chiu et a., 2010; Lu & Gilmour, 2004) with the aim to better understand the dynamics of an individual’s state of well-being (Datu & Valdez, 2012). It is for this reason that the researcher of the current study considers it relevant to employ a mixed methods sequential research design that gives priority to the quantitative study. On the other hand, the qualitative study emphasizes on the collection of salient, in-depth personal information to explore the goals, views and experiences of goal pursuit and goal attainment among Filipino adolescents and young adults. It is important to know the goals of an individual as it helps in understanding one’s present and future behaviour (Emmons, 1996; Sheldon & Kasser, 1995). The qualitative data will augment the quantitative data.

Furthermore, the driving concern of this study is to understand how personal goals are pursued and attained related to long-term levels of subjective well-being or happiness, and how ultimately to use this knowledge in a way that might optimize subjective well-being. According to Emmons (1986) the two spheres of subjective experience are happiness and life satisfaction. These two spheres are the psychologists’ concern to a vision of the good life which is deeply influenced by peoples’ goals. In an article, Frisch (1998) mentions that goal striving is important to the well-being and good life of people as regarded by psychologists. Hence, goal assessment in relation to the subjective well-being, may offer counselors, psychologists, and educators substantial leverage in trying to assist Filipino adolescents and young adults as clients to clarify, and if necessary, change their desires and aspirations in life to promote long term happiness and life satisfaction.

The current study, therefore, aims to investigate the effects of independent goal pursuit, interdependent goal pursuit, independent goal attainment, and interdependent goal attainment on subjective well-being with developmental levels (e.g., adolescence and young adulthood) as the potential moderator in these effects. In this study, the definition of Sheldon and Kasser (1988) will be adapted, that is, independent goal pursuit as pursuing goals because of the enjoyment and fun that it provides or an intrinsic reason for pursuing goals whereas interdependent goal pursuit as pursuing goals because somebody else wants it done or because one gets something from doing it or an extrinsic reason for pursuing goals. Moreover, it is hypothesized in this study that as an outcome of independent goal pursuit, attaining goals for independent reasons will be labelled as independent goal attainment; and as an outcome of interdependent goal pursuit will be attaining goals for interdependent reasons or labelled as interdependent goal attainment.

In this study intrinsic motivation of pursuing goal or an independent goal pursuit is pursuing a goal “because of the fun and enjoyment which the goal will provide you or the primary reason is simply your interest in the experience itself.” On the other hand, interdependent goal pursuit is pursuing a goal “because somebody else wants you to or because you’ll get something from somebody if you do.” This is referred to as an extrinsic motivation of pursuing goals (Sheldon and Kasser, 1988).

The Model (Fig. 1 shown below) represents the direct effects of the predictors or independent variables on the criterion or dependent variable, and the moderator interaction in all these effects. In this tentative conceptual model, independent goal pursuit, interdependent goal pursuit, independent goal attainment, and interdependent goal attainment serve as the predictor or independent variables. Subjective well-being, measured in terms of satisfaction with life (SWL) and affect (positive and negative) is the dependent or criterion variable. Developmental level (e.g., adolescence and young adulthood) is the moderator variable.

Figure 1: The Hypothesized Moderation Model of Developmental Levels (Adolescence and Young Adulthood) on Goal Pursuits, Goal Attainment, and SWB.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

The mixed methods research design was used in the current study to gain a deeper understanding of the effects of goal pursuits (independent and interdependent) and goal attainment (independent and interdependent) on the subjective well-being among Filipinos during adolescence and young adulthood.

Mixed methods research is defined as the collection or analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study. The data collected either concurrently or sequentially, are given a priority; and these data are integrated at one or more stages in the research process (Creswell et al, 2003). Combining the two methods in one study implies that the data from one method is in conversation with the other method throughout the research, thus drawing meaningful conclusions generated from a meaningful data (Wilkins & Woodgate, 2008).

Quantitative and qualitative data could be complementary (Jick, 1979). In other words, each data could uncover some unique variance which otherwise may have been neglected by a single method. Moreover, using mixed methods study will enrich findings through an understanding of the convergence of data that strengthens the conclusions and the divergence of data that calls for an explanation (Bryman, 2007; Wilkins & Woodgate, 2008). According to Ponterotto (2005) mixed methods define the quantitative studies as operating within a positivist paradigm while qualitative studies function between the postpositivist and constructivist paradigms. Further, Greene & Caracelli (1997) contend that using both forms of data allow researchers to simultaneously generalize results from a sample to a population. In addition, it allows researchers to test theoretical models and modify them based on feedbacks from participants. The results of precise, instrument-based measurements may be augmented by contextual, field-based information.

This study employed the sequential explanatory research design in which both quantitative and qualitative data were gathered in two separate phases. However, data analysis was usually connected. The integration of the quantitative and qualitative data occurred at the data interpretation stage and in the discussion section (Hanson et al, 2005). Further, in a sequential design, one method is built on the other and priority is usually unequal and given to one method i.e., on the quantitative data (Creswell, 2003) whereas the qualitative data are used primarily to augment the quantitative data. The researcher of this study chose to utilize sequential explanatory strategy as it is useful in explaining and interpreting the findings of the quantitative data.

Measures for Quantitative Study

There were four measures used in exploring the effects of goal pursuit, goal attainment, and subjective well-being of the respondents. These were Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule Expanded Form (PANAS-X), Goal Motivation Scale and Goal Progress Scale. While Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) and PANAS-X served as indicators of Subjective Well-Being, Goal Motivation Scale and Goal Progress Scale will assess the Goal Attainment of the participants.

Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) is a 5- item Likert type scale intended to evaluate a person’s judgment about his or her overall satisfaction with life. Sample items include, “In most ways my life during the past week was close to ideal,” and “The conditions of my life during the past week were excellent.” In completing the SWLS, participants indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with each item using a 7-point Likert scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. Scores on the SWLS range from 5 to 35, with higher scores indicating greater life satisfaction. The internal consistency of SWLS was reported to be .87 and the test-retest correlation is .82 (Diener, 1984).

PANAS-X (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Expanded Form) was developed and validated by Watson and Clark (1994). This is a 60-item self-report questionnaire that consists of two broad general factors, namely: positive affect and negative affect. These factors assess the emotional dimension of individuals related to general factors of personality.

Goal Motivation Scale. Sheldon and Kasser’s (1988) two of the four items for measuring the relative autonomy of goals will be used for this study. For each goal, participants will rate on a 9-point Likert scale, from 1 (“not at all for this reason”) to 9 (“completely because of this reason”). The two types of reasons are: external or interdependent (“because somebody else wants you to or because you’ll get something from somebody if you do”), and intrinsic or independent (“because of the fun and enjoyment which the goal will provide you—the primary reason is simply your interest in the experience itself”). Following previous research by Sheldon and colleagues, a scale assessing autonomous motivation was computed as the mean of intrinsic and identified regulations, whereas a scale assessing controlled motivation was computed as the mean of introjected and external regulation.

Goal Progress Scale. Goal progress for each of the goals will be assessed with a single item: “Please rate the extent to which you made progress on this goal.” Ratings will be made using a 9-point Likert scale from 1 = “not at all” to 9 = “totally.” This measure of Goal Progress has been used in several previous studies (Koestner et al., 2002; Sheldon & Kasser, 1998; Sheldon & Elliot, 1998). Recent studies have repeatedly shown a high degree of agreement between self-report and more direct measures, suggesting the validity of these assessments (Sheeran et al., 2005).

Measure for Qualitative Study.

Demographic Questionnaire. A demographic questionnaire was prepared for the adolescents and the young adults, to solicit personal information from the participants. The adolescents’ personal information included age, gender, civil status, education (or year level enrolled), and religion. The young adults’ personal information included age, gender, civil status, educational attainment, number of years working, and religion.

Interview Protocol. A semi-structured interview guide was used purposely to gather salient in-depth information through open-ended questions. According to Trace (2001) open-ended interview could help the researcher get information more comprehensively concerning the phenomenon on study. In both groups (adolescents and young adults), the interview protocol was used to maintain consistency of data in all twenty cases. The interview questions focused on the personal views on goal pursuits and actual experiences on goal attainment, and the types of goals pursued and attained in relation to the happiness of the participants.

INTEGRATED DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

This section is a general discussion that integrates both quantitative study and qualitative study to achieve a greater understanding of goal pursuit and goal attainment in relation to subjective well-being, moderated by developmental levels (adolescence and young adulthood) among Filipinos.

Independent goal pursuit and SWB

According to Sheldon and Kasser (1988), independent goal pursuit refers to intrinsic or autonomous motivation. Independent goal pursuit is pursuing goals for the fun and enjoyment that it provides, or the primary reason is simply one’s interest in the experience itself. According to Yamaguchi (2011) past studies show that intrinsic or independent goal pursuit predicts greater wellbeing and less distress. As individuals engage in self-determined activities they tend to move naturally and spontaneously (Deci, 1975), and experience the fun or challenge entailed (Yamaguchi, 2011).

Consistent with previous research, majority of the Filipino respondents of the current study with mean age of 22.07 reported the highest level of independent goal pursuit, or “completely because of this reason” in pursuing their goals for independent reasons. Hence, the Filipinos pursue goals for the fun and enjoyment that it provides or the primary reason is simply their interest in the experience itself (Sheldon and Kasser, 1988). As an outcome, the Filipino respondents have high subjective well-being (SWB) in pursuing goals for independent reasons. These results replicate other studies (Diener, Emmons, Larsen & Griffin, 1985) reporting that a person having high SWL and experiencing greater PA or less NA can be described simply as very happy, satisfied, and fulfilled in life. Other researches also confirm (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Yamaguchi, 2011; Thomas, 2000) that people are engaged in self-determined activities simply to experience efficacy and competence. On the contrary, those Filipinos who report low independent goal pursuits are expected to have low SWB.

The Filipino respondents’ high level of independent goal pursuit associated with high SWB can be further explained by the personal views they hold on independent goal pursuit. Both Filipino adolescents and young adults hold similar views of independent goal pursuit, i.e., pursuing goals to gain personal satisfaction and fulfilment and pursuing goals to attain self- satisfaction and gratification, respectively. According to Deci and Ryan (2000) being self- motivated, individuals pursue goals to experience fulfilment or joy as a personal reward. In addition, as individuals engage in activities due to its inherent satisfaction, they pursue goals for independent reasons. Some research report that intrinsic rewards bring happiness and prosperity to one’s life and generate positive feelings towards others (Thomas, 2000). Consistently, a semi- longitudinal study was done (Yamaguchi, 2011) and one of the key findings showed that intrinsic or independent goal pursuit predicted well-being, with individuals being less susceptible to daily stress.

Pursuing goals for intrinsic or independent reasons can promote growth (Deci & Ryan, 2000). In the qualitative data, the Filipino adolescents and young adults pursue similar goals, such as, family-related goals, future occupational goals, and self-enhancement goals, for independent reasons linked with their happiness. Overall, independent goal pursuit predicts SWB, in terms of cognitive and affective domains among the Filipinos.

Moderation effects of Developmental levels on Independent goal pursuit and SWB

Independent goal pursuit predicts SWB, in terms of SWL, PA, and NA and varies depending on developmental levels (e.g., adolescence and young adulthood) among Filipinos. However, the effect of independent goal pursuit on SWB is significant among the Filipino adolescents and not significant among the Filipino young adults. The contrasting views of independent goal pursuit reveal that the Filipino adolescents pursue goals to gain independence and feel happiness whereas the young adults pursue goals to increase self-confidence. Pursuing goals to gain independence and feel happiness among the adolescents may have contributed to a higher level of independent goal pursuit as compared to the young adults. Pursuing goals for independent reason was an exercise of the adolescents’ autonomy. Havighurst (1972) includes gaining emotional independence as among other developmental tasks during adolescence. Likewise, individuals explore their independence and develop a sense of self (Erikson, 1963), and create a stable identity to become productive adults (Perkins, 2008) as their major task. Consistent with past research, this relative autonomy index positively associates with mental health outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 2000). For the adolescents, interpersonal needs are intimately tied to the task of solidifying one’s identity while facing separation from parents, the choice of a mate, and the establishment of a meaningful vocation (Perkins, 2001).

Several studies among different age groups report that individual goals vary reflecting typical of their particular age (Cross & Markus, 1991; Nurmi, 1992, in Salmela-Aro et al., 2007). The Filipino adolescents and young adults reported contrasting types of goals pursued for independent reasons in the qualitative study. Findings reveal that the adolescents’ educational goals, and altruistic or religious goals make them happier than the young adults’ higher educational, relationship, finance-related, and idiosyncratic goals. A study (Salmela-Aro, 2009) reveals that one characteristic of individuals in their adolescence is their future aspirations.

Majority of the Filipino adolescents of this study are students, either in high school or in college, and show a personal interest to pursue their goals. The adolescents consider education as one of their important developmental tasks or institutional careers (Erikson, 1959; Havighurst, 1953; Steinberg, 1999). Consistent with Nurmi (1989b), interests on future education increase among individuals during adolescence. In addition, Co (1990) reports the goals or aspirations of Filipino adolescents include a focus on finishing education. Indeed, the young person’s goals give a sense of direction that can satisfy one’s personal motivation (Malmberg, 1996). Thomas (2000) asserts that independent (or intrinsic) rewards can generate happiness. Other studies confirm these results with people who are primarily concerned with independent (intrinsic) goals reporting fewer negative feelings e.g., depression, anxiety, and general health problems (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996; Sheldon & Kasser, 1995).

In contrast, the types of goals that the Filipino young adults pursue for independent reasons such as higher educational aspirations, relationship goals, finance-related goals, and idiosyncratic goals may help to explain a non-significant effect of independent goal pursuit on their SWB. Havighurst (1972) describe young adults’ developmental tasks as having a stable, intimate relationship, establishing a family, and a career. Studies (Salmela-Aro & Nurmi, 1997) have shown that young adults are in situations of being married and having children that predict their family-related goals. According to some research (Kelley, 1983; Kelley et al., 2003) individuals in young adulthood change roles as they shift focus from education to occupation, and establishing a family and career. Accordingly, young adults do not pursue their goals in isolation. Consistent with some authors (Kelley, 1983; Kelley et al., 2003), the young adults usually pursue goals in interaction with their partners and not in isolation. Consequently, the goals pursued for independent reasons may not lead to happiness among the Filipino young adults as compared to the Filipino adolescents.

Interdependent goal pursuit and SWL

Interdependent goal pursuit means pursuing goals to make parents and friends happy; or because somebody else wants it done or because one gets something from doing it (Sheldon and Kasser, 1988) was adapted in the current study. Interdependent goal pursuit refers to extrinsic or controlled motivation. Several known studies report evidence that extrinsic (interdependent) goal pursuit was positively related to ill-being indicated by anxiety and depression and negatively related to well-being indexed with life satisfaction, socially adaptive functioning, and self- actualization (Sheldon et al., 2004). In a recent study, results also show interdependent (extrinsic) goal pursuit predicted poorer academic functioning as indicated by achievement and persistence (Vansteenkiste et al., 2006). Other researchers (Brown & Kasser, 2005) report extrinsic goal pursuit negatively predicting pro-ecological engagement. Consistently, majority of the Filipino respondents of this study report low levels of interdependent goal pursuit or pursuing goals for interdependent reasons that links with low satisfaction with life (SWL). Consistent with a study (Ingrid et al., 2009) findings have shown that pursuing goals for extrinsic (interdependent) reason links with lower well-being. However, those Filipinos who have high levels of interdependent goal pursuit are expected to have high satisfaction with life.

Consistently, in the qualitative study, the Filipino adolescents and young adults hold similar views on interdependent goal pursuit. That is, both groups of respondents view interdependent goal pursuit as pursuing goals for the family. More specifically, the Filipino adolescents pursue goals to make the family happy and their parents feel proud of them. According to some research (Co, 1990; Romanes, 1984) done the Filipino adolescents’ aspirations are strongly influenced by parents, followed by teachers and their friends, with relatives as the last. The Filipino adolescents regard the family as important in their lives. Similarly, the Filipino young adults pursue goals for the family through helping the family in financial matters, and provide other needs. Furthermore, the young adults who are found in situations e.g., being married and having children (Salmela-Aro & Nurmi, 1997) focus on goals related to family and health (Salmela-Aro et al., 2007). According to Sue (1981) the individual members of the family feel strongly obligated to maintain the family’s well-being.

In a study (Duriez et al., 2007) extrinsic (interdependent) goal pursuit, in contrast to intrinsic (independent) goal pursuit, seems to be associated with lower well-being as well as less optimal functioning. According to Bainbridge (2012) an extrinsic motivation gives rewards of satisfaction and pleasure that may not be provided by the task itself. In fact, individuals with extrinsic motivation experience conflicting love relationships and friendships, thus, feeling less happy and less trustful (Kasser & Ryan, 2001). These phenomena are contributed by some factors e.g., individuals put less emphasis on affiliation (Kasser & Ryan, 1993), and benevolence (Schwartz, 1992); individuals are being less emphatic (Sheldon & Kasser, 1995), and more often agree with friends in order to get ahead of them (Khanna & Kasser, 2004).

Moderation effects of developmental levels on Interdependent Goal Pursuit and SWL

The current study findings revealed that the effect of interdependent goal pursuit on satisfaction with life varies depending on developmental level (e.g., adolescence and young adulthood) among the Filipinos. The moderation effect of developmental level is an antagonistic interaction (Wu, 2011) on the effect of interdependent goal pursuit on SWL. Thus, as an outcome of the antagonistic interaction, the magnitude of effect of interdependent goal pursuit on SWL is significant among the young adults and not significant among the adolescents.

In the qualitative study, the Filipino adolescents and young adults reported contrasting views of interdependent goal pursuit in relation to their happiness. Results show that the Filipino young adults pursue goals for the sake of co-workers and others, besides pursuing goals for the family. The adolescents did not report other views of interdependent goal pursuit besides pursuing goals for the family. A study has shown that individuals who are extrinsically oriented tend to objectify other people, using them efficiently in order to attain their own extrinsic goals (Kasser, 2002). Others report such individuals as more likely competitive rather than cooperative with friends (Sheldon, Sheldon & Osbaldiston, 2000). Several researches (Deci & Ryan, 2000) reveal the outcome of extrinsic (interdependent) goal pursuit may not contribute to the development of oneself. Consistently, the pursuit of goals is being directed toward external indicators of worth, including wealth, fame, and appealing image (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996; Vansteenkiste et al., 2006). Indeed, individuals pursuing extrinsic (interdependent) goals are those who engage more likely in stressful interpersonal comparisons (Patrick et al., 2004) and which undermine well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2004).

Moreover, the types of goals pursued for interdependent reasons (called interdependent goals) vary across developmental levels among the Filipinos. The Filipino young adults pursue higher educational goals and family-related goals for interdependent reasons. Consistent with their views on interdependent goal pursuit, the Filipino young adults pursue their higher educational aspirations and family-related goals primarily to provide finances and other needs of the family. These goals reflect the young adults’ greater role in the family. Indeed, extrinsic or interdependent goal pursuits may entail an ongoing engagement in more pressured and controlling settings (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). However, both educational and occupational achievements are the Filipino young adults’ top priorities in life (Fernandez, 1988). For them, academic and career accomplishments define their success. Besides, the young adults’ goals pursued for interdependent reasons are congruent to their situations. Thus, the young adults’ interdependent reasons in pursuing their higher educational and family-related goals may tend to increase their satisfaction with life. Findings may replicate research from Croatia and other less rich countries suggesting that interdependent or extrinsic aspirations are not necessarily detrimental, rather, they may even contribute to well-being (Ingrid et al., 2009).

The effect of interdependent goal pursuit on satisfaction with life (SWL) is not significant among the Filipino adolescents. The adolescents’ goals pursued for interdependent reasons are educational goals and self-enhancement goals. Notably, the adolescents’ goals are focused in the future. According to Salmela-Aro (2009) a trait of adolescents is to develop aspirations for their future. In addition, adolescents begin to think about their future mates (Perkins, 2001). According to Co (1990) the Filipino adolescents’ goals focus on education, getting a job, and helping the family. Consistently, several factors influence their goals and aspirations, e.g., desire to help family members, self-actualization needs, monetary remunerations, among others (Gastardo-Conaco et al., 2003). As mentioned earlier, the adolescents pursue their educational goals and self-enhancement goals to make the family happy and to make parents feel proud of them. Individuals who pursue extrinsic (interdependent) goals are those who more likely lose connection with their intrinsic motives since they have the tendency to rely on the attainment of external signs of success (Duriez et al., 2007). Even when extrinsic (interdependent) goals are achieved, these goals may not contribute to well-being because they may fail to directly satisfy basic needs (Kasser & Ryan, 2001). Further, these extrinsic (interdependent) goals may also distract an individual from investing in more congruent, intrinsically-oriented goals.

Ingrid and colleagues (2009) contend that people who vary in their approaches to seek happiness also set diverse goals in life which in turn affect differently their well-being. Extrinsic or interdependent goals, as compared to intrinsic (independent goals) are less likely to be inherently satisfying (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Moreover, the effects of interdependent goal pursuit on positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) are the same regardless of developmental levels among the Filipino adolescents and young adults.

Independent goal attainment and SWB (SWL, PA, & NA)

The outcome of pursuing of goals pursued for independent reasons (i.e., for the fun and enjoyment that it provides, or the primary reason is simply one’s interest in the experience itself) is labelled as an independent goal attainment in this study. Independent goal attainment means working toward goal progress or attainment of goals for independent reasons. Goal attainment is associated with life satisfaction (Emmons, 1986), and positive emotional experience (Brunstein, 1993). The current study findings confirmed previous studies that independent goal attainment relates with high SWB, in terms of SWL, and affect (PA & NA) among Filipinos. According to Lazarus (1991) reasonable progress in achieving goals bring happiness to people and give meaning to life. Indeed, goal striving is vital to one’s well-being and good life (Frisch, 1998).

In the qualitative study, findings revealed that there are similar experiences of independent goal attainment in relation to happiness among the Filipino adolescents and young adults. These data support the quantitative data indicating that attainment of goals leads to high subjective well-being among the Filipino respondents. According to the Filipino adolescents, independent goal attainment increases life satisfaction (e.g., gives a sense of fulfilment, sense of achievement, and enhances self-knowledge); and independent goal attainment gives a feeling of happiness. Thus, the effect of independent goal attainment is less negative feelings among the adolescents. Similarly, the Filipino young adults’ experiences of independent goal attainment enhance their life satisfaction and increase happiness in life. As an outcome of attaining goals, the young adults report less negative feelings. Consistently, there is happiness when people attain goals that are meaningful to them (Lazarus, 1991). Moreover, those people who attain goals successfully capitalize on such success. In contrast, king and Hicks (2006) assert goals that are no longer attainable lead to psychological distress. Hence, those Filipinos who report low independent goal attainment are expected to have low SWB.

Moderation effects of Developmental levels on Independent goal attainment and SWB (SWL and NA)

Independent goal attainment predicted SWB in terms of satisfaction with life (SWL) and affective domain (PA and NA). Further, the effects of independent goal attainment on satisfaction with life (SWL) and negative affect (NA) vary depending on developmental level among Filipinos. The effects of independent goal attainment on SWL and NA are significant among the Filipino young adults and not significant among the Filipino adolescents. Consistent with other studies (Deci & Ryan, 2000) goal progress happens as an effect of independent goal pursuits connected with an individual’s sense of purpose. Accordingly, this in turn increases one’s well- being.

In the qualitative study, the Filipino adolescents and young adults showed contrasting experiences of independent goal attainment related to their happiness. Findings reveal that the young adults’ independent goal attainment increases self-competence, and gives more meaning in life. In contrast, the adolescents’ independent goal attainment is important to one’s well-being.

The young adults’ experiences of independent goal attainment enhanced more their happiness or SWB as compared to the adolescents. According to Deci (1975) individuals who are intrinsically motivated satisfy the basic needs of competence and relatedness. Some research (Grob et al., 2001; Marini, 1987; Schulenberg & Maggs, 2002) describe young adults as facing more transitions in life as they change roles from being students or graduates to new roles as adult worker, spouse, and parent. Young adults regard this period of their life as one of profound change and importance to them. Previous studies (Nurmi & Salmela Aro, 2002) reveal that goal compensation and adjustments are done when young adults undergo transitions in life that lead to well-being. Thus, the young adults can easily strive to attain their goals for independent reasons. Consistently, doing progress in goal attainment enhances long-term well-being (Brunstein, 1993; Emmons, 1986).

Moreover, the Filipino young adults and adolescents reported contrasting types of goals attained for independent reasons. For the Filipino young adults, they have made progress toward attaining their family-related goals, occupational or work-related goals, and relationship goals that link with happiness. Indeed, young adults focus on family-related goals as being married and having children (Salmela-Aro & Nurmi, 1997), as well as put emphasis on occupational goals. A study (Nurmi & Salmela-Aro, 2002) has revealed that young adults who focused on their work- related goals and found jobs eventually experienced lower depressive symptoms. Hence, they work towards achieving such goals (Nurmi et al., 2002). Other research (Emmons, 1991; Salmela-Aro & Nurmi, 1997) found young adults who focused on interpersonal and family- related goals have higher levels of well-being than do other young people. Further, young adults who found work commensurate to their education appraised their work-related goals as increasingly achievable, important, and arousing positive emotions. Goal attainment occurs if the goal is important to the individual (Latham, 2000).

In contrast, the Filipino adolescents in this study have been making progress in their educational goals and self-enhancement goals for independent reasons. Nurmi (1989b) reports that adolescents have increasing interest on future occupation, education, and family. Consistently, individuals refer to their life goals as they think of the future (Emmons, 2002). Further, the Filipino adolescents’ educational and career aspirations are positively related to their mental ability (Medina, 2001). Moreover, the Filipino adolescents remain optimistic with some goals difficult to achieve (McCann Erikson Philippines, 1993). Consistently, the adolescents of the current study report goals focused on their future. As an outcome, the effects of independent goal attainment on SWL and NA are not significant among the Filipino adolescents as mentioned earlier.

Furthermore, the effect of independent goal attainment on positive affect (PA) is not significantly moderated by developmental levels among Filipinos. That is, the effect of goal attainment on positive affect will be the same for both the Filipino adolescents and young adults. As mentioned earlier, both Filipino adolescents and young adults have similar experiences of independent goal attainment, that is, attaining goals for independent reasons gives them a feeling of happiness and increases happiness in life, respectively. Hence, independent goal attainment will lead to positive feelings among Filipino adolescents and young adults.

Interdependent Goal Attainment and NA

The outcome of interdependent goal pursuit is an interdependent goal attainment.

Interdependent goal attainment means attaining goals for interdependent reasons. The pursuit of extrinsic or interdependent goals has been characterized with outward orientation, hence, may be antithetical to an individual’s development (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Individuals are likely to suffer when goals do not go well (King & Burton, 2003) and when they do not always achieve goals (Salmela-Aro, 2009). When goals are no longer attainable, individuals feel psychological distress (King & Hicks, 2006). Consistent with previous studies, the effect of low levels of interdependent goal attainment related with more negative affect (NA) among the Filipino respondents in the current study. Several studies (Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996; Vansteenkiste et al., 2006) have shown that interdependent goal pursuit, directed toward external indicators of worth, more likely relate to poor goal progress. When individuals are interdependently or extrinsically oriented, they feel less happy (Kasser and Ryan, 2001). However, those Filipinos who report high on interdependent goal attainment are expected to have low negative affect (NA).

In the qualitative study, similar experiences of interdependent goal attainment indicate that both Filipino adolescents and young adults reported poor goal progress due to personal inadequacies. These similar experiences linked with having more negative feelings support the quantitative data. Further, the Filipino adolescents experience low or poor interdependent goal attainment due to personal inadequacies reflecting their developmental tasks. According to Havighurst (1975) adolescents have the developmental task of gaining emotional independence from parents and other adults; however, they also encounter interpersonal needs (Perkins, 2001) such as, establishing one’s identity (King & Burton, 2003) that affect their goal attainment. If goals are unrealistically high, the result will be repeated failures that lower the individual’s self-efficacy (Anderman & Wolters, 2006, in Santrock, 2008). The literature mentions that the adolescents are mainly focused on future goals and aspirations in life e.g., finishing education and helping their families (Co, 1990). Consequently, the adolescents fail to totally attain their goals acknowledging their personal inadequacies that somehow may contribute to greater negative affect. Studies (Sheldon & Elliot, 1998 in Powers et al., 2007) distinguish intrinsic (independent) from extrinsic (interdependent) motivation reporting that extrinsic or interdependent motivation is unrelated to goal attainment.

Similarly, the Filipino young adults included internal obstacles e.g., personal inadequacies, as their actual experiences of poor or low interdependent goal attainment. According to King and Burton (2003) young adults experience more depressive symptoms as they focus on work- related goals and remain unemployed. According to Hurlock (1982) young adults are focused on their developmental tasks of getting started in their work, selecting a life partner, and building a family. Thus, interdependent goal attainment is related more on negative feelings as a consequence of pressuring demand or accomplishing an action (King and Burton, 2003).

Moderation effects of Developmental levels on Interdependent Goal Attainment and NA

The effect of interdependent goal attainment on negative affect varied depending on developmental level among Filipinos. The effect of interdependent goal attainment on negative affect is significant among the Filipino adolescents and not significant among the young adults.

The qualitative data explained the significant effect of interdependent goal attainment on negative affect among the Filipino adolescents. Contrasting experiences of interdependent goal attainment between the Filipino adolescents and young adults related to varying effects in their well-being. The Filipino adolescents included lacking emotional support and pursuing future- related goals in their experiences of interdependent goal attainment. These experiences may have contributed to their low levels of interdependent goal attainment. Consequently, the adolescents experienced greater negative affect. Consistently, researchers (Kasser and Ryan, 2001) contend that individuals who are interdependently or extrinsically oriented feel less happy. Notably, the types of goals not totally achieved for interdependent reasons have an effect on the Filipino adolescents’ overall happiness in life. That is, the Filipino adolescents reported poor goal progress on their self-enhancement goals and educational goals reported as not totally attained for interdependent reasons. In relation to educational goals, Co (1990) contends that the Filipino adolescents dream of finding a good job after graduation. Furthermore, it is important for the adolescents to obtain a degree to face the competitive world and improve one’s quality of life. In another study (Salmela-Aro & Nurmi, 1997) findings report that self-focused goals predicted depressive symptoms, such as the self-enhancement goals of the Filipino adolescents. It is evident that both educational goals and self-enhancement goals were not totally attained for interdependent reasons among the adolescents. In Kasser and Ryan (2001) adolescents who may attain their extrinsic (interdependent) goals may fail to satisfy their basic needs. Accordingly, attaining those goals may not relate to their well-being.

Among the young adults, they included internal obstacles e.g., negative attitude, and external obstacles e.g., financial constraints as their experiences of poor interdependent goal attainment. Previous studies have shown that individuals who are 18-30 years old face a number of transitions in life (Rindfuss, 1991) which is considered as an important marker during adulthood (Hogan & Astone, 1986). Further, the Filipino young adults include higher educational goals and family- related goals associated with their low goal progress. During the period of young adulthood, individuals are concerned with both self-growth and relationship matters (Birch, 1997). The study of Salmela-Aro and Nurmi (1997) reported that family-related goals led to a decrease of depression. However, the effect of interdependent goal attainment on negative affect is not found significant among the Filipino young adults as mentioned earlier.

Moreover, the effects of interdependent goal attainment on satisfaction with life (SWL) and positive affect (PA) are not moderated by developmental levels among the Filipinos. This means that the effects of interdependent goal attainment on satisfaction with life (SWL) and positive affect (PA) will be the same for both Filipino adolescents and young adults.

RELEVANCE OF FINDINGS

Implications for Counseling Practice

1. The Filipino adolescents who are in school need greater awareness of personal goals they develop associated with tackling their age-graded developmental tasks. It is helpful that school-based career counseling programs create effective and efficacious programs, interventions, and strategies to address some concerns on constructing, choosing and attaining more functional goals to facilitate positive growth.
2. A community-based counseling center may be established both in government and private work places to assist the young adults deal with the pursuit and attainment of their goals.

 Implications for Future Research

1. Further research to deepen knowledge of life goals and its appraisal processes is important in shaping a better Filipino
2. Research on the subjective well-being of Filipinos is More future studies will add to the non-existent literature specifically on the process of goal pursuits and goal attainment employing mixed methods research design.

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