A Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Sri Lankan Political Cartoons

A Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Sri Lankan Political Cartoons

M.K.S.S. Gunarathne
University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka

Abstract

The illustrious body of Sri Lankan political cartoons has received inadequate attention. This qualitative study explored the rich corpus of Sri Lankan political cartoons to decode the messages, and to discover the assorted modes those political cartoons employ. The study was a discursive content analysis, using the multimodal discourse analysis, on 52 political cartoons featured in the English weekly, Sunday Observer, from January 2021 to December 2021. The research decrypted the convoluted messages communicated through the chosen cartoons. The foregrounding of the socio-political and economic messages aided by the contexts of socio-political and economic significance was recognised. The mirroring of the major incidents of social, political and economic significance to spread awareness among the common populace, and the feasibility and comprehensibility of the visual projections were highlighted in the conclusions.

Keywords: Context, Decoding messages, Modes, Multimodal discourse analysis, Sri Lankan political cartoons

Introduction

Political cartoons constitute an enthralling genre. The seemingly simplistic outlook of the political cartoons is a deceptive yet beguiling cover that sheaths a multitude of meanings and information embedded in those. The origin of these fascinatingly intricate political cartoons can be attributed to cartooning, which was “an outgrowth of caricature” (Johnson, 1937, p.21) used for “more or less distorted representation of issues, situations, and ideas” (Johnson, 1937, p.21). Dan Backer (as cited in McCallum, n.d.), defines political cartoons as a fusion of the two elements; “caricature” and “allusion” (para. 2).

            The subtlety and striking visuals of political cartoons make them powerful weapons that can be used to communicate, criticise, influence, stimulate debates, and even provide a cathartic effect. Bush (2013) perceives political cartoons as “a complex system of symbols, pictures, and words put together in a way that newspaper readers, who understand the intended message of the cartoonist, will better understand the issue that the cartoonist addresses” (p.63). Bush’s (2013) statement denotes how political cartoons bridge the world of politics and that of the general public simply by spreading awareness regarding current occurrences.

            The rhetoric of political cartoons, which was once contained to the printed media, has now reached digital platforms making itself ubiquitous. This “universal instrument of a political dialogue between government and society, [and] a reflection or reaction of society to a political event” (Dugalich, 2018, pg. 158) is also a record of history that can be used in the teaching-learning process. According to McCarthy (1977), “Political cartoons can also be used for any unit that is aimed at teaching the skills of analysing historical evidence” (p.32).

            The rich multifaceted nature and the various functions served by the political cartoons invite further exploration. The present study seeks to contribute to this gallant purpose.

Aim and Objectives of the Research

            This research aims to decode the messages delivered through the Sri Lankan political cartoons while investigating the modes employed in those cartoons, utilising multimodal discourse analysis (hereinafter MDA).

            The study includes two research objectives to facilitate the purpose of the research, which are as follows.

1. To investigate what socio-political and economic changes in Sri Lanka gave rise to the political cartoon manifestations in selection for this research.
2. To investigate which modes are employed to generate the messages delivered.

Literature Review

The review of the extant literature offers insights into the scope of the studies conducted with regard to the discourse of political cartoons. When reviewing the current literature, it is obvious that the majority of the studies have examined numerous aspects of political cartoons in reclusion. A vast majority of studies in the corpus have concentrated on linguistic and non-linguistic elements of political cartoons. Apropos to linguistic elements, the most extensively investigated areas are morphological, semantic, and pragmatic elements. (Sani et al., 2012; Dugalich, 2018; Kondowe et al., (2014); Kwon & Roh, 2018; González, 2019; Bamigboye & Omotunde, 2019; Nasirov, 2003; Nonyerem, 2015; Emezue, 2012; Ibrahim, 2014) Semiotics is intensively investigated in the domain of non-linguistics, regardless of region or data in selection. (Robingah, 2020; Hasanah & Hidayat, 2020; Safalia, 2014; Akande, 2002; Putri, 2018; Aryuni, 2012) Among the handful of research conducted on Sri Lankan political cartoons the majority fixate on semiotic analysis. (Fernando, 2013; Gajanayake, 2014)

            Furthermore, the current body of literature has examined the various functions performed by political cartoons, which can be classified into three major categories: communicating, influencing public opinion, the formation of ideologies and creation of social and political identities. Political cartoons serve three functions in terms of communication. The most common of the three is to provide socio-political commentary. (Emezue, 2012; Putri, 2018; Ibrahim, 2014; Mateus, 2016) The purpose of informing the public (Safalia, 2014; Akande, 2002) and providing a cathartic effect (Fernando, 2013; Robingah, 2020) constitute the other two communicative functions. Since political cartoons are an effective tool for communication, they can be used to shape public opinion. Several studies inspect how political cartoons leverage this power to spread propaganda. (Conners, 2007; Shaikh et al., 2016; Kondowe et al., 2014; Edwards, 2007) Agenda setting, though seldom studied, is another aspect of the genre of political cartoons that can be studied in terms of its influential function. The third and final role of political cartoons, as ascertained by reviewed literature, is the construction of ideologies and the creation of social and political identities. Only a few researchers have examined this purpose, which is further subdivided into three sub-sections: ideological construction, social and political identity construction, and ideological breakthrough resulting from resistance. The available minority of studies on ideological construction includes that of Sajid & Khan (2020) and Kean (2008). Since the second sub-section also represents a less-travelled path, it offers ample opportunities for new research. Nevertheless, research depicting political cartoons concerning resistance and revolution that resulted in ideological shifts constitutes a sizable body of work. However, when the Sri Lankan context is considered, there is a need for research that addresses these aspects.

            As the reviewed literature highlighted the dire need of research on Sri Lankan political cartoons, the author of the current study believes that conducting a research to understand the dynamic of the object of inspection as the initial step would benefit both the body of literature on Sri Lankan political cartoons and the researchers who intend to study those. As the next step, a solitary inspection of specific elements can be carried out, and the current research will provide significant insights to aid future research on Sri Lankan political cartoons. The few studies that have looked into Sri Lankan political cartoons have used semiotic analysis as their analytical framework. (Fernando, 2013; Gajanayake, 2014) Also when examining the studies on the discourse of political cartoons around the world, it is clear that semiotic analysis is the most commonly used framework. However, a number of studies used different frameworks, such as semantic, pragmatic, multimodal, and critical discourse analysis. A thorough review of existing studies, on the other hand, demonstrated the significance of MDA for a comprehensive examination of political cartoons. As a result, the current study considers MDA to be the best framework for the study because it intends to delve into the most intricate details of the political cartoons in selection.

Furthermore, the majority of research on Sri Lankan political cartoons has focused on political and editorial cartoons published in Sinhala newspapers. Fernando (2013) is an exception, as it examines editorial cartoons published in selected Sinhala, Tamil, and English newspapers in Sri Lanka. Though Fernando (2013) included English newspapers in his study, both newspapers considered; Daily Mirror and The Island, are privately owned. Hence, the current study will examine political cartoons published in the Sunday Observer, a state-owned weekly published by the Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Limited (ANCL/Lake House). Also, it is considered to be the oldest newspaper in print to-date. Furthermore, with the exception of the studies conducted by Robingah (2020), Hasanah & Hidayat (2020), and Sajid & Khan (2020), the research reviewed, including that of Sri Lanka, deals with political and editorial cartoons that were published a good while ago. As a result, a thorough investigation into the most recent political cartoons is a timely requirement that will undoubtedly contribute to the current body of literature.

Key Findings

The analysis of the 52 Sri Lankan political cartoons led to many findings. They are organized under the two subtopics used in the Data Analysis for clarity of presentation. They are contexts and messages.

Contexts

            As one of the study’s four research objectives is to examine the contexts that influenced the illustration of the chosen political cartoons, a significant analysis was carried out to determine the socio-political, economic, and other contexts that emerged in Sri Lanka from the beginning of January 2021 to the end of December 2021. With such extensive analysis, it was revealed that there were certain similarities among the contexts on which these political cartoons were based. Further investigations on this aspect revealed that the contexts could be categorized under three main divisions viz social, political and economic. However, several challenges were faced in placing some of the political cartoons in such clear-cut dichotomies as those cartoons depicted powerful projections of two or more of these contexts. The distribution of the data based on the three main contextual divisions are shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1

Distribution of the Political Cartoons based on their Contexts.

            As shown in Table 1.1, the majority of the political cartoons are based on events with political significance. A total of 22 political cartoons are based on socially significant incidents, while only 8 cartoons, the minority among the three main categories, fall under political cartoons with an economic inference background.

Social Context

The study discovered that the political cartoons which have a background with social significance depict unique areas of social interest. Education, health and well-being, public safety, festivities, law and order, and freedom and independence are among them. The distribution of the political cartoons with contexts of social interest is displayed in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2

Distribution of the Political Cartoons with Contexts of Social Interest.

            Certain political cartoons, as shown in Table 1.2, fall into two categories. However, the majority of the political cartoons listed above share one major socially significant feature. Because the cartoons were published during a time when a global pandemic was sweeping the country, a significant number of them deal with the subject of ‘health and wellbeing’. Furthermore, the next most popular topic, ‘education’, appears to have been adequately addressed, as the country’s education system was jeopardized by both the COVID 19 virus and, more importantly, by the teachers’ and principals’ protest. Other topics have received moderate interest, but they are also important in understanding Sri Lanka’s social circumstances at the time these political cartoons were published.

Political Context

Based on the analysis, it was discovered that the larger branch of political context can be further subdivided into further facets anchored on the multiple facets of politics addressed by the political cartoons in question. Domestic politics and international politics are the two major categories under which these cartoons are classified. Though domestic politics extends into several areas, international politics is limited to the incidents in relation to the United Nations Human Rights Council (hereinafter UNHRC). The distribution of political cartoons with a background of political events is shown in Table 1.3, which divides them into two categories: domestic and international politics.

Table 1.3

Distribution of the Political Cartoons under Domestic and International Politics.

A closer examination of domestic politics revealed the various aspects of politics addressed in the 36 political cartoons included in the category. As shown in Table 1.4, the majority of the political cartoons examined in the study depicted inter-party politics. The depiction of Samagi Jana Balawegaya (hereinafter SJB) and Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (hereinafter JVP) as a coalition working toward a common goal was a major highlight in these cartoons. The political arena is riddled with power politics, which are aptly depicted in the selected political cartoons. Working on personal agendas to strengthen power and positions could also be seen in the majority of the cartoons of this genre. The cartoonist had put an equal effort to portray intra-party politics as well. This also is intrinsic to politics. Further, the cartoons which address separatist politics and ethnic based politics could also be seen among the data set that was analysed. These categories provide insight into issues that are rarely discussed.

Table 1.4

Distribution of the Political Cartoons under Domestic Politics.

Economic Context

The findings foregrounded by the data analysis revealed that a few political cartoons were created on the premises of certain incidents of economic importance to the country. In observing these handful of cartoons, two major categories were identified. Those were the cartoons that projected the economic status of the country and the cartoons which illustrated economic benefits provided for the people. The distribution of the cartoons based on this division can be depicted by Table 1.5.

Table 1.5

Distribution of the Political Cartoons under Economic Context.

            Delving into the country’s economic outlook during the year of 2021 is of utmost importance as the country was not facing favourable circumstances. Especially, the COVID 19 pandemic was a hard blow on the country’s economy which was already deteriorating owing to many reasons. Meanwhile, it is also equally important to observe how the people of the country were tended during such harsh and testing times. The financial aids given to the people who were affected in numerous ways from the pandemic was praiseworthy, given the poor economic status of the country.

            Further, as pointed out in the study, the country’s economic situation recovered slightly due to certain singled out instances such as foreign investments, and the return of the Finance Minister Basil Rajapakse.

Messages

            The current study aimed to decrypt the various messages conveyed by Sri Lankan political cartoons and to investigate the modes that facilitate the delivery of the messages. To produce a generalizable result, it is necessary to inspect the type of messages delivered by the selected cartoons. This section is dedicated to providing an understanding of the messages conveyed by Sri Lankan political cartoons as evinced by the data analysed in the study.

            These political cartoons adopt a yin-yang approach in delivering messages. The cartoons are biased towards the country’s government; therefore, all the depictions of the government’s actions are benevolent. The actions of the other parties, on the other hand, are portrayed as malevolent, devious, and opportunistic. The SJB and the JVP are the two main parties targeted by these political cartoons. These two groups are portrayed as protestors and obstructers. Furthermore, intra-party politics and power struggles have been encoded in the messages of some political cartoons. Though few in number certain political cartoons also conveyed messages that shows the international intervention in domestic politics.

            Based on the common ideas often encapsulated in the messages of the 52 Sri Lankan political cartoons that were scrutinized for the study, the distribution of the political cartoons can be displayed through the Table 1.6.

Table 1.6

Distribution of the Political Cartoons based on their Messages

Conclusion

The current research is aimed at decoding the messages conveyed by Sri Lankan political cartoons while investigating the modes used in those. Based on a qualitative discursive content analysis of the Sri Lankan political cartoons conducted using the multimodal discourse analysis (hereinafter MDA); it was revealed that ninefold messages were communicated by the data analysed. Benevolence of the government, Oppositions’ attempt to sabotage the government’s actions, SJB and JVP union, attempt to draw attention, securing law and order, selfish motives, parties of the Opposition in jeopardy, attempt to reinstate power, and international involvement in domestic affairs are the messages that were communicated through a total of 52 Sri Lankan political cartoons analysed in the study.

            In response to the objective of investigating the various contexts that gave rise to the political cartoon manifestations in selection for this research, the study revealed that contexts were provided by events of social, political and economic significance that took place in the year 2021.

The results of the analysis revealed how the Sri Lankan political cartoons mirror the major incidents of the social, political and economic significance of the country. These manifestations mainly aim to spread awareness among the common populace while serving many other functions. The practicability, comprehensibility and lucidity of visual projections aid in achieving these functions.

This study was conducted after a thorough review of the extant literature to bridge an existing gap in the subject of political cartoons, especially in relation to the body of literature on Sri Lankan political cartoons. Sri Lankan studies on political cartoons were very few. Further, this handful of studies that have scrutinized Sri Lankan political cartoons have used semiotic analysis as their analytical framework. (Fernando, 2013; Gajanayake, 2014) Though not used in the works of Fernando (2013) and Gajanayake (2014), the literature available suggested the suitability of MDA to inspect political cartoons. Thus, the current study made the conscious decision of using MDA as its analytical framework. In addition, a gap in the sample was also discovered. The gap arose from the use of political and editorial cartoons that were published in Sinhala newspapers. Despite the fact that Fernando (2013) included editorial cartoons published in daily English newspapers in his research, both of the newspapers considered, the Daily Mirror and The Island, are privately owned. In order to fill this gap, the current study used political cartoons published in the state-owned weekly English newspaper, Sunday Observer.

Furthermore, with the exception of the studies conducted by Robingah (2020), Hasanah & Hidayat (2020), and Sajid & Khan (2020), the research reviewed, including that of Sri Lanka, deal with political and editorial cartoons that were published some time ago. As a result, a comprehensive investigation into the most recent political cartoons as provided by the present study is an urgent requirement that will unquestionably add to the existing body of literature.

Based on the current study and its findings few recommendations could be made. The current study has taken the liberty to explore English political cartoons published in a state-owned newspaper. Further studies on political cartoons published in other languages can be conducted and would be a worthy addition to the current pool of literature. Further, the analyses of the cartoons revealed the use of Sinhala idioms and metaphors in those. These areas can be explored extensively using Sri Lankan political cartoons. Additionally, it was observed that several cartoons used for the study have drawn from movie references. This is an area explored outside Sri Lanka. However, there is room for investigation of this area in Sri Lanka. In relation to these, pop culture references can also be investigated. Some of the images used in the political cartoons that were inspected included stereotypical representations. As the genre of political cartoons is seldom explored in Sri Lanka, there are ample opportunities for future researchers and research enthusiasts to dig deeper into the subject of political cartooning.

References

Books

1. Forceville, C. & Urios-Aparisi, E. (2009). Multimodal Metaphor. [E-book]. Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110215366
2. Gunther, K. (2010). Multimodality A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication (3rd ed.) [E-book]. Taylor & Francis.
3. Gunther, K., & Leeuwen, T. J., (2002). Colour as a Semiotic Mode: Notes for a Grammar of Colour [E-book]. Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.1177/147035720200100306
4. Leeuwen, T. V., & Jewitt, C. (2001). The Handbook of Visual Analysis (First ed.) [E-book]. SAGE Publications Ltd.
5. Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2009). Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation (4th ed.) [E-book]. Jossey-Bass.
6. Norris, S. (2004). Analyzing Multimodal Interaction: A Methodological Framework (3rd ed.) [E-book]. Taylor & Francis e-Library. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203379493
7. Norris, S. (2014). Interactions, Images and Texts: A Reader in Multimodality [E-book]. de Gruyter Mouton
8. Parahoo, K. (2014). Nursing Research: Principles, Process and Issues (3rd ed.) [E-book]. Red Globe Press.

Journal Articles

1. Al-Momani, K., Badarneh, M. A., & Migdadi, F. (2017). A semiotic analysis of political cartoons in Jordan in light of the Arab Spring. Humor, 30(1), 63–95. https://doi.org/10.1515/humor-2016-0033
2. Bamigboye, O., & Omotunde, S. A. (2019). Stylistic foregrounding in the socio-political commentary of selected guardian cartoons. Journal of Language and Literature, 19(02), 98–107.

Newspapers

1. Punchihewa, J. (2021, January 3). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
2. Punchihewa, J. (2021, January 10). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
3. Punchihewa, J. (2021, January 17). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
4. Punchihewa, J. (2021, January 24). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
5. Punchihewa, J. (2021, January 31). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
6. Punchihewa, J. (2021, February 7). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
7. Punchihewa, J. (2021, February 14). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 6).
8. Punchihewa, J. (2021, February 21). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 4).
9. Punchihewa, J. (2021, February 28). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
10. Punchihewa, J. (2021, March 7). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
11. Punchihewa, J. (2021, March 14). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
12. Punchihewa, J. (2021, March 21). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
13. Punchihewa, J. (2021, March 28). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
14. Punchihewa, J. (2021, April 4). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
15. Punchihewa, J. (2021, April 11). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
16. Punchihewa, J. (2021, April 18). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
17. Punchihewa, J. (2021, April 25). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
18. Punchihewa, J. (2021, May 2). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
19. Punchihewa, J. (2021, May 9). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
20. Punchihewa, J. (2021, May 16). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
21. Punchihewa, J. (2021, May 23). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
22. Punchihewa, J. (2021, May 30). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
23. Punchihewa, J. (2021, June 6). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
24. Punchihewa, J. (2021, June 13). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
25. Punchihewa, J. (2021, June 20). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
26. Punchihewa, J. (2021, June 27). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
27. Punchihewa, J. (2021, July 4). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
28. Punchihewa, J. (2021, July 11). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
29. Punchihewa, J. (2021, July 18). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
30. Punchihewa, J. (2021, July 25). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
31. Punchihewa, J. (2021, August 1). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
32. Punchihewa, J. (2021, August 8). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
33. Punchihewa, J. (2021, August 15). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
34. Punchihewa, J. (2021, August 22). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
35. Punchihewa, J. (2021, August 29). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
36. Punchihewa, J. (2021, September 5). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
37. Punchihewa, J. (2021, September 12). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
38. Punchihewa, J. (2021, September 19). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
39. Punchihewa, J. (2021, September 26). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
40. Punchihewa, J. (2021, October 3). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
41. Punchihewa, J. (2021, October 10). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
42. Punchihewa, J. (2021, October 17). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
43. Punchihewa, J. (2021, October 24). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
44. Punchihewa, J. (2021, October 31). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 10).
45. Punchihewa, J. (2021, November 7). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
46. Punchihewa, J. (2021, November 14). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
47. Punchihewa, J. (2021, November 21). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
48. Punchihewa, J. (2021, November 28). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
49. Punchihewa, J. (2021, December 5). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
50. Punchihewa, J. (2021, December 12). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
51. Punchihewa, J. (2021, December 19). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
52. Punchihewa, J. (2021, December 26). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8).
53. Punchihewa, J. (2022, January 9). [Political Cartoon]. In Sunday Observer (p. 8). Published Dissertations
54. Akande, O. (2002), A semiotic analysis of political cartoons; A case study of Nigeria. (Publication No. 3045839) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. https://www.proquest.com/openview/86d6d1f5b601c23d5d3bad7e672a9528/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
55. Aryuni, H. (2012), An analysis of political cartoons in the Jakarta post e-paper (a semiotic discursive approach). [Undergraduate’s Thesis, Dian Nuswantoro University]. http://eprints.dinus.ac.id/5979/1/THESIS.PDF
56. Gajanayake, G.M.S.B. (2014), Semiotics analysis on message delivering in Sri Lankan political cartoons. (Publication No. 10306891) [Undergraduate’s Thesis, University of Moratuwa]. https://www.academia.edu/10306891
57. González, E. R. (2019), Principles that regulate the interpretation of political cartoons in Mexican online newspapers: a pragmatic analysis. (Publication No. 3131) [Master’s Thesis, Universidad Autónoma De Baja California].Researchgate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348656659_Principles_that_regulate_ the_ interpretation_of _political_cartoons_in_Mexican_online_newspapers_a_pragmatic_analysis
58. Nasirov, M. S. (2003), Feathers and tuxedos: an analysis of political cartoons about Indian gaming. (Publication No. 0410103-135838) [Master’s Thesis, Louisiana State University]. https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_theses/1664/.
59. Putri, S. A. (2018), A semiotic analysis of Joko Widodo political cartoons in the Jakarta post e-paper. (Publication No. 0410103-135838) [Undergraduate’s Thesis, University of Sumatera Utara]. The University Institutional Repository.  http://repositori.usu.ac.id/handle/123456789/3131
60. Safalia, F. (2014), A semiotic analysis of political cartoon of Iran nuclear program. (Publication No. 0410103-135838) [Undergraduate’s Thesis, University of Brawijaya]. Neliti.  https://www.neliti.com/publications/205185/a-semiotic-analysis-of-political-cartoon-of-iran-nuclear-program#cite

Reports

1. Beillard, M. J., (2021). Sri Lanka Restricts and Bans the Import of Fertilizers and Agrochemicals. Global Agricultural Information Network. https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReport ByFile Name?fileName=Sri%20Lanka%20Restricts%20and%20Bans%20the%20Import%20of%20Fertilizers%20and %20Agrochemicals_New%20Delhi_Sri%20Lanka_05-14-2021.pdf
2. Centre for Policy Alternatives. (2021). A basic guide to the Colombo Port City Economic Commission Bill and key areas of concern. https://www.cpalanka.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/CPA-commentary-on-the-Port-City-Bill-03.05.2021-1.pdf
3. Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority. (2021). Monthly Tourist Arrivals Report-January 2021(SLTDA Publication No. 43543704035). Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority. Sri Lanka https://sltda.gov.lk/storage/common_media/Arrivals%20Report%20January%202021%20%20final% n2043543704035.pdf
4. Statistics Department-Central Bank of Sri Lanka. (2021). Weekly Economic Indicators. (CBSL Publication No. 20210827). Central Bank of Sri Lanka. https://www.cbsl.gov.lk/sites/default/files/cbslweb_documents/statistics/wei/WEI_20210827_e.pdf
5.  UN (United Nations) General Assembly. 2021. Resolution adopted by the Human Rights Council on 26 March 2021 -Promoting reconciliation, accountability and human rights in Sri Lanka. Forty-sixth session. A/HRC/RES/46/1. Available at https://undocs.org/A/HRC/RES/46/1
6. Wimalaweera, A. (2020). Covid 19 & Beyond- The impact on the Labour Market of Sri Lanka. Department of Labour, Sri Lanka. http://www.labourdept.gov.lk/images/PDF_upload/notices/survey%20report%202020.pdf

Press Release  

1. Presidential Secretariat. (2021a, February 1). Final report of PCoI on Easter Sunday attacks handed over to President [Press release]. https://www.presidentsoffice.gov.lk/index.php/2021/02/01/final-report-of-pcoi-on-easter-sunday-attacks-handed-over-to-president/
2. Presidential Secretariat. (2021b, May). National War Heroes Commemoration under the patronage of President and Prime Minister … [Press release]. https://www.presidentsoffice.gov.lk/index.php/2021/05/19/national-war-heroes-commemoration-under-the-patronage-of-president-and-prime-minister/
3. Presidential Secretariat. (2021c, August). Emergency regulations on essential food supply declared with effect from midnight today… [Press release]. https://www.presidentsoffice.gov.lk/index.php/2021/08/30/emergency-regulations-on-essential-food-supply-declared-with-effect-from-midnight-today/

Electronic Newspaper Articles

1. Ameen, A., & C. (2021, August 17). Sajith notes shortage of Tocilizumab medication for severe Covid patients. The Morning – Sri Lanka News. https://www.themorning.lk/sajith-notes-shortage-of-tocilizumab-medication-for-severe-covid-patients/
2. Backbencher, (2021a, January 17). Ranjan vilified Executive, Legislature and Judiciary – Minister Ranatunga. Sunday Observer. http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2021/01/17/news-features/ranjan-vilified-executive-legislature-and-judiciary-minister-ranatunga
3. Backbencher, (2021b, June 12). Leadership crisis rocks SJB. Sunday Observer. https://www.sundayobserver.lk/2021/06/12/leadership-crisis-rocks-sjb
4. Committee to study reports on Easter Sunday attacks. (2021, February 20). Sunday Observer. https://www.sundayobserver.lk/2021/02/21/news/committee-study-reports-easter-sunday-attacks
5. Dinesh insists Manusha tried to intimidate Speaker.  (2021, December 6). TheI Sland. https://island.lk/dinesh-insists-manusha-tried-to-intimidate-speaker/
6. Fernando, M. (2021, February 2). Unilateral action, a violation of principles of natural justice. Sunday Observer. http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2021/02/28/news/unilateral-action-violation-principles-natural-justice-%E2%80%93-foreign-minister
7. Fernando, S. (2021, January 31). Sri Lanka celebrates the National Day. Sunday Observer. http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2021/01/31/opinion/sri-lanka-celebrates-national-day
8. Fernando, T. (2021, May 26). Vaccine drive highly politicised – Anura Kumara. CeylonToday. https://ceylontoday.lk/news/vaccine-drive-highly-politicised-anura-kumara
9. Final report of the Presidential Commission on Easter Sunday to the President today. (2021, February 1). Colombopage. http://www.colombopage.com/archive_21A/Feb01_1612157441CH.php
10. Govt withdrawing from UNHRC Resolution 30/1: Mangala Samaraweera responds. (2020, March 3). CeylonToday. https://archive.ceylontoday.lk/print-more/53436
11. Herath, A., & Vaffoor, N. (2021, October 26). Hesha Vithanage, Chaminda Wijesiri quit SJB posts. CeylonToday. https://ceylontoday.lk/news/hesha-vithanage-chaminda-wijesiri-quit-sjb-posts
12. Huaxia (Ed.). (2021b, August 28). Sri Lanka receives 300,000 doses of Sinopharm COVID-19 vaccine donated by China’s PLA. Xinhua. http://www.news.cn/english/2021-08/28/c_1310154646_2.htm
13. Huaxia (Ed.). (2021a, May 21). Sri Lanka’s parliament passes Port City bill on building financial hub. Xinhua. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/asiapacific/2021-05/21/c_139959878.htm
14. Indrajith, S. (2021b, June 9). Ranil’s move to grab Opposition Leader’s post lands SJB in quandary – govt. The Island. https://island.lk/ranils-move-to-grab-opposition-leaders-post-lands-sjb%E2%80%88in-quandary-govt/
15. Indrajith, S. (2021a, April 23). Chief Govt Whip informs Parliament CID wants to question Harin over contradictory statements. The Island. https://island.lk/chief-govt-whip-informs-parliament-cid-wants-to-question-harin-over-contradictory-statements/
16. Jayawardana, S. (2021, December 5). Brawl in Parliament: SJB MPs walk out, demand security. Print Edition – The Sunday Times, Sri Lanka. https://www.sundaytimes.lk/211205/news/brawl-in-parliament-sjb-mps-walk-out-demand-security-464479.html
17. Mushtaq, M. (2016, February 27). Mangala Contradicts Maithri, Says International Participation is Needed in War Crimes Investigation. Colombo Telegraph. https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/mangala-contradicts-maithri-says-international-participation-is-needed-in-war-crimes-investigation/
18. Nadkarni, S. (2021, May 25). Sri Lanka passes controversial Port City Bill. Seatrade Maritime. https://www.seatrade-maritime.com/ports-logistics/sri-lanka-passes-controversial-port-city-bill
19. No permanent enemy or friend, only permanent interest. (2019, December 1). The Tribune. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/features/no-permanent-enemy-or-friend-only-permanent-interest-6312
20. Parliament to debate PCoI report on Easter attacks on March 10. (2021, March 4). Daily News. https://www.dailynews.lk/2021/03/04/local/243158/parliament-debate-pcoi-report-easter-attacks-march-10
21. Perera, Y. (2021, November 17). Get ready to form a new government: Sajith – Main Image | Daily Mirror. DailyMirror. https://www.dailymirror.lk/main_image/Get-ready-to-form-a-new-government-Sajith/346-224937
22. Pradeep, C., & Aravinda, I. S. (2013, September 25). Video: Unite the country; share the power: Sumanthiran. Daily Mirror. https://www.dailymirror.lk/breaking_news/unite-the-country-share-the-power-sumanthiran/108-36036
23. PTI, (2021a, March 22). Vote on resolution against Sri Lanka at UNHRC postponed to Tuesday. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/vote-on-resolution-against-sri-lanka-at-unhrc-postponed-to-tuesday/article34133696.ece
24. PTI. (2021b, August 14). Sri Lanka to import medical oxygen from India amid rise in COVID-19 cases. . . The New Indian Express. https://www.newindianexpress.com/world/2021/aug/14/sri-lanka-to-import-medical-oxygen-from-india-amid-rise-in-covid-19-cases-2344731.html
25. Samaraweera, B. (2021, July 8). Welgama slams critics of new party. The Morning – Sri Lanka News. https://www.themorning.lk/welgama-slams-critics-of-new-party/
26. Second Reading of Budget 2022 passed. (2021, November 23). CeylonToday. https://ceylontoday.lk/news/second-reading-of-budget-2022-passed
27. Sooriyagoda, L. (2021, January13). Ranjan gets 4 years RI for Contempt of Court. Daily News. https://www.dailynews.lk/2021/01/13/local/238676/ranjan-gets-4-years-ri-contempt-court
28. Sri Lanka opposition MP Harin Fernando summoned to CID over Easter attack speech. (2021, July 28). EconomyNext. https://economynext.com/sri-lanka-opposition-mp-harin-fernando-summoned-to-cid-over-easter-attack-speech-84352/
29. Srinivasan, M. (2021, April). Bomb blasts kill more than 200 in Sri Lankan churches, hotels on Easter Sunday. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/multiple-blasts-rock-sri-lanka-on-easter-sunday-several-killed/article61559741.ece
30. Sumanthiran calls for ‘federalism, democracy and protection.’ (2019, December 19). Tamil Guardian. https://www.tamilguardian.com/content/sumanthiran-calls-%E2%80%98federalism-democracy-and-protection%E2%80%99

Websites

1. Budget 2022: 7.51% allocated for education. (2021, November 12). Gold FM News. Retrieved January 8, 2022, from https://www.hirunews.lk/goldfmnews/287754/budget-2022-7-51-allocated-for-education
2. Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Sri Lanka: The Tamil National Alliance (TNA), including the party’s relationship with the current government and the 2011 local authority election results (June 2010-December 2011), 18 January 2012, LKA103949.E, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/4f435cce2.html [accessed 2 January 2022]
3. Farzan, Z. (2021, June 23). Ranil Wickremesinghe re-enters Parliament as an MP. Sri Lanka News – Newsfirst. Retrieved December 10, 2021, from https://www.newsfirst.lk/2021/06/23/ranil-wickremesinghe-re-enters-parliament-as-an-mp/
4. Guidelines for celebrating Sinhala and Tamil New Year issued. (2021, April 3). Sri Lanka News – Newsfirst. https://www.newsfirst.lk/2021/04/03/guidelines-for-celebrating-sinhala-and-tamil-new-year-issued/
5. Hon. Basil Rajapaksa is sworn in as a Member of Parliament. (2021, July 8). Parliament of Sri Lanka. Retrieved January 2, 2022, from https://www.parliament.lk/en/news-en/view/2193?category=6
6. Many material, financial assistance for those affected by the Coronavirus. (2020, April 1). News.Lk-The Government Official News Portal. Retrieved January 5, 2022, from https://www.news.lk/news/political-current-affairs/item/29919-many-material-financial-assistance-for-those-affected-by-the-coronavirus
7. McCallum, A. (n.d.). The Evolution of Political Cartoons Through a Changing Media Landscape. Retrieved December 7, 2022, from http://www.people.vcu.edu/~djbromle/cartoon04/projects/anne/index.htm
8. Nilar, A. (2021, August 9). ‘Don’t criticize Army vaccination drive’ – Commander responds to Ranil. Sri Lanka News – Newsfirst. Retrieved December 2, 2021, from https://www.newsfirst.lk/2021/08/09/dont-criticize-army-vaccination-drive-commander-responds-to-ranil/
9. Sajith questions govt.’s measures to combat COVID-19. (2021, August 3). Sri Lanka News – Newsfirst. Retrieved December 3, 2021, from https://www.newsfirst.lk/2021/08/03/sajith-questions-govt-s-measures-to-combat-covid-19/
10. Sajith says state hospital has sought hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19 treatment. (2020, October 23). Sri Lanka News – Newsfirst. https://www.newsfirst.lk/2020/10/23/sajith-says-state-hospital-has-sought-hydroxychloroquine-for-covid-19-treatment/
11. Sajith visits CID with Ashok Abeysinghe. (2021, March 11). Lanka Leader. Retrieved December 3, 2021, from https://english.theleader.lk/news/1239-sajith-visits-cid-with-ashok-abeysinghe
12. Samir Kassir Foundation. (n.d.). Sunday Observer. Media Ownership Monitor Lebanon. Retrieved November 2, 2021, from https://lebanon.mom-rsf.org/en/media/detail/outlet/sunday-observer/
13. Shmaltz & Menudo, (2017, January 28). Famous Sayings: #46 — ‘It Is Better to Remain Silent. . ..’ Shmaltz and Menudo. Retrieved November 13, 2021, from https://shmaltzandmenudo.wordpress.com/2017/01/27/famous-sayings-46-it-is-better-to-remain-silent/
14. SLFP inquires into the registration of party with a similar name. (2021, July 7). Gold FM News. Retrieved December 14, 2021, from https://www.hirunews.lk/goldfmnews/276318/slfp-inquires-into-the-registration-of-party-with-a-similar-name
15. Teachers continue to protest against salary anomalies. (2021b, July 24). Sri Lanka News – Newsfirst. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from https://www.newsfirst.lk/2021/07/24/teachers-continue-to-protest-against-salary-anomalies/
16. Webnews Editor. (2021, August 25). සජිත් පාර්ලිමේන්තුවේදී කියපු ‘ටොසිලිසුමාබ්’ කෙහෙළිය ඉන්දියාවෙන් ඉල්ලයි. WebNews. Retrieved December 3, 2021, from https://webnews.lk/sajith-calls-for-tosilisumab-in-parliament/
17. World Health Organization. (2021, March 7). First batch of COVID-19 vaccines from the COVAX Facility arrive in Sri Lanka. Retrieved December 15, 2021, from https://www.who.int/srilanka/news/detail/07-03-2021-first-batch-of-covid-19-vaccines-from-the-covax-facility-arrive-in-srilanka#:%7E:text=in%20Sri%20 Lanka-,First%20batch%20of%20COVID-19%20vaccines%20from%20the,Facility%20arrive%20in%20Sri%20 Lanka&text=Colombo%2C%20Sri%20Lanka%2C%207%20March,vaccines%20from%20the%20 COVAX%20facility

Other Electronic Sources

1. Abhiman. (2019, November 10). Usa nam Security miti nam kamkaru [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QN_nSSg1e5Q
2. Udayashantha video team, (2020, May 24). 2019/pugoda gammaduwa/ gara yaka/SRILANKA gammadu #bangalawaththa# [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EFDPlPD4SdU
3. DailyMirror[@DailyMirror_SL]. (2020, March 23). Opposition Leader Sajith Premadasa advises the government on what medication needs to be prescribed to cure Covid-19. @sajithpremadasa [Video attached] [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/Dailymirror_SL/status/1241808174849519 616