An Assessment of the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem among Children in Late Childhood and Adolescence: A Case of Tumaini Primary School in Kayole Zone, Embakasi West Sub-County, Nairobi County, Kenya

An Assessment of the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem among Children in Late Childhood and Adolescence: A Case of Tumaini Primary School in Kayole Zone, Embakasi West Sub-County, Nairobi County, Kenya

Loise Rukwaro

Daystar University

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2023.7011131

Received: 05 November 2023; Revised: 11 November 2023; Accepted: 16 November 2023; Published: 20 December 2023

ABSTRACT

Globally, parents are using different parenting styles to raise their children which is known to have an impact on their self-esteem development. This in turn impairs their overall well-being and development in different aspects of their lives. The objectives of the study were to establish the different parenting styles employed by parents of children aged 9-15 years old; assess the type of self-esteem associated with different parenting styles among the children in the target population; and evaluate the relationship between socio demographic characteristics of the children, their self-esteem, and parenting styles employed among them. Both correlational and descriptive research designs were used, and the entire target population, 1201 pupils, formed the study sample. A self-administered closed-ended questionnaire was used to obtain quantitative data. The questionnaire had three sections: socio-demographics, PSDQ, and CSEI. Data was analyzed via SPSS, version 20. Some of the study findings were that the authoritarian parenting style was the most prevalent (70.4% identified it) among the respondents which negatively impacted their self-esteem development (M= 34-02 ±5.38), (r= -0.51); half (50.2%) of the respondents concealed their self-esteem status; the authoritarian and dismissive parenting styles exhibited high defensiveness(r=0.35, r=0.011), respectively; respondents parents’ ages influenced both variables – mothers (p=0.005, p=0.011) and fathers (p=0.000); and single mother households (p=0.001) significantly influenced both variables. Among other recommendations, the study recommends the provision of more available counseling services to children in late adulthood and adolescence and sensitization of parents on the different parenting styles as well as the effect of each style on children’s self-esteem development.

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Introduction

The Kenyan Constitution accords every child the right to parental care and protection from any form of neglect, abuse, or discrimination (Silvana & Associates, 2022). Virasiri et al. (2011) defined parenting as the process of biological parents or guardians within a family setup nurturing a child from birth till adulthood with an end goal of raising disciplined children while ensuring their health and safety. A high-quality and positive parent-child relationship vitally contributes to healthy development in children in various life aspects such as cognitive, social, psychological and physical (ACT Raising Safe Kids Program, 2017). On the contrary, a low-quality relationship leads to abnormal child growth and development. It is to this extent that, globally parents employ differing parenting styles to raise their children with the hope of normal progressive growth and development in children.

According to Kuppens and Ceulemans (2019), Diana Baumrind spearheaded research on parenting approaches through the classification of different parenting styles. These typologies were used to describe variances in normal parenting behaviors and their association with children’s development. Hence, Baumrind developed the first three parenting styles, namely authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. Baumrind (1971) opined that parents who portray high control and low warmth might be categorized as authoritarian. Authoritarian parenting style is focused more on disciplining the child than nurturing them. In comparison, parents who employ the authoritative approach display high control and warmth equally. They are known to employ a cocktail of both the authoritarian and permissive parenting styles – the authoritarian’s high control and the permissive’s high warmth (Li, 2022).

With time scholars such as Maccoby took up Baumrind’s research, built on it, and came up with four parenting styles that primarily focus on further understanding the then already-developed different parenting styles. They then came up with an additional parenting style – neglectful/uninvolved. The parenting style is used by parents employing low control and warmth as they bring up their children. This is because neglectful parents fail to communicate with their children, have no expectations of their children, and have no discipline strategy in place if a child fails to obey the rules set.

The choice of any of the parenting styles is informed by the characteristics of the parent, child, and contextual, as well as sociocultural characteristics of the parent (Lang, 2020). A parent’s choice of parenting style is considered personal depending on their personality, health status, or upbringing. Therefore, parents’ personal attributes (one’s personality, health condition, or parental developmental history) greatly influence their choice of parenting style/s. In addition, the child’s characteristics can also influence parenting styles through their temperament. Lastly, contextual and societal characteristics may cause a parent to have a low or depressed mood, which may lead the parent to employ a parenting style that may affect the child’s self-esteem negatively. These influencers discussed above inform parents’ parenting styles in raising children across all ages and stages of development.

As per Erik Erickson’s psychosocial stages of development, target population are within stages 4 and 5 (Martha et al., 2021);in these stages children begin to interact and compare themselves with their peers and either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their lives or feel inferior and inadequate. As children’s social interactions progress, they begin to question their identity, develop their sense of self, and affirm their ideals and values (Martha et al., 2021). During these two stages of child growth and development, various parenting styles employed by different parents are said to have a huge impact on children. It is said that the biggest influence on self-esteem is parenting (especially during childhood), acceptance, and self-control. Generally, children are known to have high self-esteem, which declines over the years as they develop cognitively (Emamzadeh, 2018). This is attributed to them basing self-evaluations on external feedback from their significant others, who may include parents, caregivers, and attachment figures, as well from social comparisons.

Background to the Study

A long-term relationship and involvement between a parent and child can either have a positive or negative influence on the child’s holistic development (The Pillars, 2019). Therefore, parents’ ought to expose children to age-appropriate challenges seeking to encourage normal progressive growth and development as well as facilitate their learning processes from the environment(Child Development Institute, n.d.). Parenting styles are considered to be the core determinants in a child’s mental stability and growth (Zahedani et al., 2016). They elicit some desirable or undesirable behaviors in children that may affect their self-esteem and mental health positively or negatively.

It has been proven that the use of a parenting style that involves strict traits (such as the authoritarian style) may lead to poor formation and development of self-esteem in a child as compared to a parenting style involving gentle traits (such as the authoritative style) (Jadon & Tripathi, 2017). On the other hand, the use of autonomy in the authoritative style of parenting makes children believe in themselves and perform well, resulting in the development of high self-esteem (Dhar, 2022). In the permissive parenting style, parents practice great leniency towards their children due to inadequate rules set and ignorance to disobedience. Thus, the majority of children are known possess an inflated type of self-esteem(Dewar, n.d.), since they are overly confident of themselves considering that anything they may do or say is acceptable by their parent. Lastly, the uninvolved parenting style makes a child develop low self-esteem due to the parent’s unavailability and unresponsive nature (ACT Raising Safe Kids Program, 2017).

Parenting styles with undesirable traits, such as psychologically controlling behavior, parental rejection, and over-possession, damage a child’s self-esteem, resulting in low self-esteem development and psychological problems. Meanwhile, parenting styles that exhibit flexibility and other desirable, including positive behavior controlling tendencies, parental emotional warmth, and acceptance prove to be conducive to self-esteem development; hence, high self-esteem and positive overall well-being.

Development of self-esteem in children is greatly influenced by parents’ behavior, attitudes, and internalization of the same (Queiroz et al., 2020). A child’s self-esteem is considered to be high and positive when they approximate their ideal self. Children exhibiting high self-esteem are known to be optimistic, social and jovial(Self esteem, n.d.).At times, possible positive(educational, health or even relationship) outcomes stem from high self-esteem development; thus a predictor of success in life events(Orth &Robins, 2014). However, children with very high self-esteem may feel superior to the rest and, in turn, become bullies(Gonzalez, 2022). This could be attributed to their popularity amongst other children or their feeling of being overly independent compared to their counterparts.

Children may develop low self-esteem when parents negatively criticize them or press them to reach unrealistic goals(Self esteem, n.d.). Low self-esteem development is greatly linked to depression and its symptoms which is a cause of alarm (Orth &Robbins, 2014). Since depressed people are prone to worthlessness, incompetence, and inadequacy hence low self-esteem. Characteristics of children with low self-esteem include people-pleasing, personal dislike of self, unhappiness, self-blaming tendencies, need constant validation, socially ineptness, and superiority complex tendencies (Self esteem, n.d.).

Statement of the Problem

The majority of children in Kayole Zone are experiencing low self-esteem status which is attributed to the different households one may come from. Therefore, their parents could be employing parenting styles that are negatively affecting the development of a child’s self-esteem, cognition, socialization and overall development (The Pillars, 2019). The relationship between self-esteem and parenting styles is considered crucial since it is at this stage that self-esteem is developing as others are seeking autonomy while navigating puberty (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). Hence, during these phases of their lives, children need parental guidance provided through different parenting styles. Scholars who have studied the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem in late childhood and early adolescence have majorly sampled test subjects on various sets of individuals, especially children, adolescents in high school, young adults in universities, and the corporate world (Mensah & Kuranchie, 2013; Pinquart & Gerke, 2019; Zakeri & Karimpour, 2011). However, studies focusing on the age group of 9-15 years are limited. These reasons informed the need for the study to be conducted.

Purpose of the Study

The goal of the study was to assess the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem among children in late childhood between 9 and 11 years and adolescents between 12 and 15 years with a focus on Tumaini Primary School in Kayole Zone, Embakasi West Sub-County, Nairobi County, Kenya.

Objectives of the Study

Specific Objective

1. Evaluate the relationship between sociodemographic characteristics of the children in the target population, their self-esteem, and parenting styles employed among

Research Question

1. What was the connection between sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents, their self-esteem, and parenting styles employed among children in late childhood and adolescence in Tumaini Primary School in Kayole Zone, Embakasi West Sub-County, Nairobi County?

Justification for the Study

The surge of birth rates in Kenya equals an increased need for parenting and the use of dissimilar parenting styles in raising children (Unicef, 2018). John Locke posits that children are born tabula rasa meaning they know nothing and have a blank slate when born (Uzgalis, 2022). Hence, parents are often viewed as role models who execute learning through their various parenting styles. Parenting styles used could be gentle on the children which leaves them with positive and high self-esteem while others may develop negative and low self-esteem due to the use of parenting styles that are harsh (Sarwar, 2016). Additionally, parenting styles can interfere with children’s social, psychological, and physical well-being over the years.

Significance of the Study

1. The study will enable children in late childhood and adolescence stages globally to possibly develop high self-esteem with positive attributes.
2. Psychologists can adopt the findings and recommendations of the research as they develop policies and programs to take care of children’s self-esteem in late childhood and adolescence.
3. Most importantly, possibly reducing the number of mental health cases attributed to the same.
4. Further, the study findings can be additional input to the already existing area of knowledge on the link between parenting styles and self-esteem with a focus on children in late childhood and adolescence.
5. Lastly, the findings may be a guide for future research.

Assumptions of the Study

1. The respective county education office, head teachers, and parents of the students would grant the researcher permission to carry out the study.
2. The researcher would be able to get enough willing respondents to form a sufficient sample for the study and hence obtain accurate results.
3. The respondents would familiarize themselves with the part of the data collection tool that the researcher developed and give honest responses to all study questions.

Scope of the Study

This study focused on the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem among children in late childhood and adolescence in Kayole Zone, Embakasi West Sub-County, Nairobi County. Therefore, the study was carried out in Tumaini Primary School in Kayole Zone, Embakasi West Sub-County in Nairobi County.

Limitations and Delimitations of the Study

The possibility that some of the pupils’ parents may be unwilling to consent for their children to take part in the study. To address this, the researcher attempted to address concerns some parents had as well as assured them of confidentiality and anonymity of the respondents.

The probability that some respondents could be unwilling to respond to the questions in the research instrument since they may consider it to be lengthy and time-consuming. As a mitigation measure, the researcher informed the respondents of the benefits of the study.

The chance that the prospective respondents may give inaccurate responses due to fear of stigmatization. To delimit this, the researcher assured the respondents of anonymity, and that no respondent would be discriminated against or stigmatized.

Definition of Terms

The definitions explained below were proposed and given by the researcher to help explain the technical terms used in the study:

Adolescence: In the study, the term was used in reference to a group of children enrolled in primary school who are between 12 and 15 years old.

Autonomy: This study applied the term to refer to the ability of children between the age of 9 to 15 years to become self-initiating and self-regulating.

Household type: In this study’s context, household type described the living arrangement of the target population. That is, whether the target population currently stayed with either their parents and siblings, parents alone, guardians/caregivers, grandparents, at a children’s home, or with their siblings only.

Late childhood: The period between early childhood and early adolescence which comprises children between the ages of t and 10 (Martha et al., 2021). The term was used in this study to refer to children in primary school level of education between the ages of 9 and 11 years.

Parental acceptance: The warmth, care, support, love, affection, comfort, and nurturance that parents feel, express, and accord their children (Khaleque, 2015).

Parental rejection: The absence of warmth, affection, and love, and an increase in the presence of a variety of physically and psychologically hurtful behaviors of parents towards their children (Khaleque, 2015).

Parenting style: study applied the term to refer to parental behaviors informed by various internal and external factors that each parent uses when raising his or her child.

Parenting: The term was used in the current study to describe the role of a biological parent in raising his or her children who are in the age category of 9 to 15 years.

Self-esteem: The overall feeling of worth, dignity, and importance a person makes out of him or herself (Vanbuskirk, 2021).

Socio-demographic characteristics: A combination of social and demographic factors that define people in a specific group or population (Ayanyemi, 2022).

Summary

The chapter has introduced the study by providing the study background, a description of the problem that was investigated, the study purpose and objectives, and the questions that the study sought to answer. Moreover, the chapter has discussed the study’s justification, significance, scope, assumptions, limitations, and delimitations. The key terms used in the study have also been defined in the chapter.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The chapter focuses on various aspects of literature. It addresses a theory that is congruent with the research study, relevant general literature, empirical literature, as well as the conceptual framework through which the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem among children in late childhood and adolescence is illustrated.

Theoretical Framework

Interpersonal Acceptance-Rejection (IPAR) Theory

The main proponent of the IPAR theory was Ronald Rohner. IPAR theory is considered to be an empirical theory of socialization and overall development which predicts and explains major consequences, causes, and other correlates of interpersonal acceptance and rejection worldwide. Despite the 2014 transitions of the PAR theory into IPAR theory, the majority of Ronald Rohner’s sentiments remained the same. Its personality sub-theory explains how parental acceptance or rejection may affect one’s personality development and mental health. The coping sub-theory attempts to define how, for instance, a child or adolescent progresses in life despite their parent’s rejection or acceptance while raising them. Lastly, the socio-cultural system sub-theory attempts to explain why parental acceptance or parental rejection may happen.

The IPAR theory proponent depicted it to be made up of a warmth dimension involving interpersonal relationships as a continuum of both acceptance and rejection (Rohner, 2021). He added that in such a continuum, each child experiences some degree or lack of love at the expense of their attachment figures, especially parents. Therefore, on one end of the continuum, interpersonal acceptance is experienced, while on the other hand, interpersonal rejection is dominant. For instance, in the acceptance continuum, love and care are experienced at varying degrees.

The personality sub-theory, on the other hand, attempts to build on interpersonal relationships, which is also in a continuum of both acceptance and rejection. It postulates that human beings have a long-lasting and emotional need to receive positive responses from people they consider important (Rohner, 2021). Additionally, as a result of psychological hurt from parental rejection, children tend to become defensively independent. Consequently, such children tend to be emotionally unstable and feel unworthy of love. In the coping sub-theory, the development of a defensive independent attitude is a coping mechanism where a child copes instrumentally. Therefore, the child could be faring well in other aspects of their lives but is greatly impaired psychologically as a result of parental rejection.

General Literature Review

Relationship between Socio-demographic Characteristics, Parenting Styles and Self-esteem

Socio-demographics simply refers to the characteristics of the population. It helps determine whether the conduct of research reaches the target population as hoped and whether or not the information being gathered is accurate and true to the study (Check Market by Medalia, n.d.).

The Canadian Institutes of Health Research (2015) has defined gender as socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions, and identities of different sexes and gender-diverse people in general. Further, The Canadian Institutes of Health Research added that gender can influence one’s worldview, self-concept, behaviors, social interactions, and devolution in society. Gender is conceptualized as a binary, male or female, but has recently developed considerable diversity in individuals or groups’ understanding, experience, and expression of it. Gender is known to be a predictor that informs the type of parenting style used which affects a child’s self-esteem (Zakeri & Karimpour, 2011). The authoritarian approach to parenting, especially during punishment, is for instance, commonly applied among the males since they respond to physical discipline and alter unwanted behavior (Gilli, 2016). Therefore, the use of the authoritarian style of parenting among male scan greatly influences their self-esteem and affects their overall well-being.

The age of a child is believed to also determine the type of parenting style to be used. For instance, parents with adults are more likely to employ neglectful or indulgent parenting styles since they are older, independent and are more aware of their actions (Rosen et al., 2008). In contrast, Kuppens and Ceulemans (2019) asserted that parents of adolescents prefer to employ the authoritative parenting style, which has always been associated with positive developmental outcomes. Thus, different age groups indeed influence different kinds of parenting styles. Therefore, parents choose the most appropriate parenting style to raise children depending on the child’s age group.

Household type can also be a predictor on the choice of parenting style to be used, which also impacts a child’s self-esteem. For instance, A study by Ghani et al. (2014) showed that the majority of single-parent households are known to employ the authoritative style compared to other parenting styles. The results were as follows: the authoritative parenting style (M = 1.33),the authoritarian parenting style (M =1.03), and the permissive parenting style (M = 0.99). Hence, applying the authoritative parenting approach within single-parent households warrants the development of healthy, high, and positive self-esteem among the children.

Empirical Literature Review

A meta-analysis by Pinquart et al. (2019) focused on assessing the association between parenting styles and the self-esteem of children and adolescents by integrating the findings of various studies on this association. A systematic search in electronic databases was conducted, and 116 studies were identified and included in a random-effects meta-analysis. The results confirmed small to moderate positive associations of authoritative parenting with self-esteem (r = 0.26; 95%-CI [0.24, 0.29]) while authoritarian had small to moderate negative associations with self-esteem (r = −0.18; 95%-CI [−0.21, −0.14]) and neglectful parenting (r = −0.18; 95%-CI [−0.23, −0.12]) were related to lower self-esteem in the offspring. Lastly, permissiveness by low control and high warmth rather than only by low control (r = 0.07; 95%-CI [0.01, 0.12]).

Focusing on adolescents in Ibadan, Nigeria, Aremu et al. (2018) investigated the relationship between perceived parenting styles and the adolescents’ self-esteem and found a significant association between the two variables. The respondents consisted of 504 pupils. The self-esteem and parental authority questionnaires, adjusted to the Rosenberg scale assessment tools were used. About one-third of the respondents reported parenting styles as flexible (fathers: 36.3%, mothers: 38.9%). The Pearson correlation coefficient test was conducted and showed a positive significant relationship between authoritative parenting style and adolescent self-esteem for fathers (r = 0.141, p = .001) and mothers (r = 0.137, p = .001). From this, it can be determined that in Ibadan, Nigeria, adolescents whose parents employed authoritative parenting styles were prone to exhibiting high self-esteem, which enhanced positive developmental outcomes.

Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework shows how the variables in a study relate to each other.

Figure 2.1:Conceptual Framework

Source: Author (2023)

Discussion of the Conceptual Framework

The framework visualized in Figure 2.1 depicts this study’s conceptualization of the relationship between the variables: parenting styles and self-esteem. Self-esteem was the dependent variable, while parenting styles and socio-demographic factors were the independent variables. The relationship between the independent and dependent variables is moderated by factors that influence a parent’s choice of parenting style. These include economic status, interpersonal relationships, culture, and intrapersonal factors. The moderating factors that influence the relationship between the three variables were not measured.

In conclusion, the development of either high or low self-esteem in a child is influenced by the parenting style employed by the child’s parent as well as by the child’s socio-demographic characteristics, such as gender and age. Moreover, factors such as culture, nature of work, interpersonal relationships, intrapersonal relationships, a child’s characteristics, and financial aspects may influence a parent’s choice of parenting style, in turn affecting the child’s self-esteem.

Summary

Chapter two has explored two theoretical foundations: the IPAR and self-determination theories. In addition, the chapter has explored literature relevant to the study variables. The conceptual framework has also been presented and discussed.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

This chapter discusses the research methodology that was employed in this study. It presents the research design, target population, sample size, sampling techniques, data collection as well as its analysis. It, lastly, lays out the ethical factors that the study put into consideration.

Research Design

Creswell and Creswell (2018) defined research design as an exploration within qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches that provide distinct directions for data collection and analysis. The study sought quantitative data, employing both correlational and descriptive research designs.

Target Population

Barnsbee (2018) described a study population as a group of individuals that are searcher intends to explore and conclude from. This study targeted children in late childhood and adolescence (9-15 years) schooling in Tumaini Primary School. The 1,201 pupils aged 9 to 15 years in Tumaini Primary School were in class 4 to class 8. The target population was, therefore, grouped into late childhood and adolescents’

Table 3.1 gives a breakdown of the target population by gender and class of the pupils.

Table 3.1: Target Population by Gender and Class

Sample Size

Dattalo (2008)described a sample as “a subset of the population elements that results from a sampling strategy” p. 3). However, in the study, the target population, 1201 pupils, formed the sample of the study and deemed eligible due to their age brackets and membership to the selected primary school.

Sampling Techniques

In the study, the census method was employed.

Inclusion criteria

For one to participate in the study, one had to meet the following criteria: fall within the target group, live with or be raised by either one parent, a parent and stepparent, or both parents; have obtained signed assent from their respective parent/s; have given their consent or are willing to take part in the study.

Exclusion criteria

The study excluded pupils who were: not within the target group, were living with and being raised by their caregivers or guardians, had not obtained signed assent from their respective parents, and had not consented or were unwilling to take part in the study.

Data Collection Instruments

Olson (2021) described data as information that, when examined, is used to find things out and/or make decisions. According to Ngulube (2019), data collection instruments refer to tools used by researchers to collect data in the research process. A self-administered closed-ended questionnaire was used for data collection. The researcher trained research assistants who administered the questionnaire to the participants. The questionnaire had three sections: the socio-demographic questionnaire, the parenting style questionnaire, and the self-esteem inventory. The first section was researcher developed. Whereas, the second and third sections were adapted and validated [Mmusi et al., 2022; Potard, 2017; Momberg & Page, 1977].

Questionnaire Sections

Section One: Socio-demographic Questionnaire

The first section of the questionnaire looked into the socio-demographics of the target population to obtain qualitative data. This section was researcher developed and sought to obtain socio-demographic information such as class, age bracket, gender, parent’s age bracket, and household type.

Section Two: Parenting Style Dimension Questionnaire (PSDQ)

Section two was a 21-item parenting style questionnaire/self-administered assessment tool appropriate for the study population. The assessment tool was composed of statements that were justified using a five-point Likert scale with the options – strongly agree, agree, neither agree/disagree, disagree, and strongly disagree. During data analysis, the responses given were keyed into the SPSS version 20, which employed the factor analysis method. Thereafter, the classifications were named as either of the four parenting styles:  authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, or uninvolved.

Section Three: Coopersmith Self-esteem Inventory

The 58-item questionnaire in section C of the questionnaire was also adapted. Coppersmith self-esteem inventory – school form is made up of 58 statements, where 8 of the statements form the lie scale. The inventory is answered by putting a tick across each of the 58 statements in the dichotomous key provided in either the “Like Me” or “Unlike Me” column. It consists of 5 subscales, each with items that are used to obtain specific data from the different subscales of interest. There’s a scoring sheet that acts as a guide in the scoring process(McClelland, 2011). Each item scored one point, which was then totaled to give the overall results. While deducting the 8 lie scale statements, the scores ought to range from 0 – 50, whereby high scores (36+) reflect high self-esteem among the study population, low scores (24 and below) symbolize low self-esteem, and moderate scores (25-35) signified moderate self-esteem (Potard, 2017). CSEI’s test-retest reliability test proved to be successful in a study that included 140 children within classes four to seven. (.72 to .85), all indices being significant at the .01 level(Chiu, 1985).

Data Collection Procedures

According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2012), data collection is an action of gathering information for a study.

For this study, before commencing the process of gathering data, the researcher took the steps required to acquire the following essential approvals and authorizations:

1. Approval from the researcher’s host department in Daystar University, that is, the Counselling and Psychology Department. This approval is required for any research proposal being submitted to the DU-ISERC for ethical clearance consideration.
2. Ethical clearance from DU-ISERC
3. Research permit from NACOSTI.
4. Authority to access the target school for data collection from the Kenya MoE.
5. Permission to conduct research from the Nairobi County Government, Department of Education. This is the department responsible for Kayole Zone, where the target school, Tumaini Primary School, is located.
6. Permission from the Tumaini Primary School head teacher allowing the researcher to collect data from the school.
7. Issued written consent forms to the study participants’ parents for them to gain an understanding of the study.
8. Upon obtaining the parents’ consent, the researcher explained the importance of the study to the pupils by emphasizing the benefits that arise from their parents’ use of healthy parenting styles while parenting.
9. Data collection was conducted through the census method with the aid of research assistants.
10. If a pupil developed any extreme negative psychological feelings, one was given a time out

Pilot study

Pilot study is a stage in research whereby survey questions or questionnaires are tested on similar members of a study population(Hu, 2014). A pilot study was done in Kifaru Primary School, focusing on pupils in late childhood and adolescence.

Data Analysis Plan

Data analysis is a crucial method of putting facts and figures to solve the research problem, and find answers to a research question (Ashwiradam, 2014). The data obtained from the study site was initially sorted and checked for any data disqualifications. Reasons for such disqualification would be incomplete responses in the data collection tools and non-compliance with the study’s inclusion and exclusion criteria. Both qualitative and quantitative data were entered and then coded into SPSS, version 20, for data analysis. The analysis employed an appropriate level of significance (.05) as it sought to define and describe the relationships at play within the study.

Ethical Considerations

Velasquez etal. (2010) argued that ethics is based on well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to follow. During the conduct of this research, the following issues were put into consideration:

1. Obtaining relevant permissions (as outlined in the section on “data collection procedures”) to guarantee the study viability and appropriate conduct of research.
2. Obtaining permission for data collection from the would-be participants as well as consent from their parents.
3. Obtaining voluntary and informed assent from the study participants.
4. Adhering to confidentiality and anonymity regarding the participants and the information they provided. This was done by eliminating participants’ names in the assessments and having them (assessments) sealed for privacy to ensure that the information provided could not be traced back to them.
5. Allowing for the withdrawal of the participants from the research in cases where they may develop negative psychological feelings. There was also available help, the guidance and counseling teacher, in cases where participants needed psychological help because of negative psychological effects from the study.

Summary

This chapter has highlighted the research process that the study adhered to while pointing out that the study obtained both qualitative and quantitative data.

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Introduction

The chapter details the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of the collected data. The following aspects are captured: response rate, socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, and findings as per the objectives of the study.

Data was collected using a self-administered closed-ended questionnaire and analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics via SPSS version 20. Subsequently, the study results were presented in figures and tables.

Response Rate

The study’s target population was 1,201 pupils, which was the entire target population of the study. This comprised pupils in class 4 to class 8, specifically those between the ages of 9 to 15 years. However, 443 pupils met the exclusion criteria and were therefore not analyzed. Out of the 930 questionnaires administered,172 participants dropped out and only 758 (81.5%) met the inclusion criteria which was analyzed. Hence, the breakdown and final sample size was as shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Response Rate

Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Respondents

The sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents were asoutlined in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2: Respondents’ Demographic Characteristics

In Table 4.2,the distribution of the respondents based on their socio-demographic characteristics is captured. The highest number of respondents based on the classes was class 8(24.4%), followed by class 5(20.8%), then class 4(19.5%). Noteworthy, the distribution was equally spread in all the classes; hence there was equal representation.

As for the respondents’ age, the highest number was the 12-15-year-olds (60.9%) compared to the 9-11-year-olds (39.1%). Regarding gender, the females were slightly more (52.4%) than the males (47.6%), therefore, there were no age differences (p=0.528) between males and females, thus according to gender, the age of the respondents was equally distributed. As for the respondents’ mothers’ ages, a good number (39.7%) did not know, but from those who knew, the mothers’ ages mostly ranged from 31-35 years and 35-40 years, so they were mostly middle-aged.

As for fathers’ ages, the highest number was those above 40 years (48.7%), followed by those between 35-40 years (19%),and thirdly those between 31-35 years (18.5%).Thus, most fathers were also middle-aged but a little older than the mothers, and the differences were statistically significant (p=.000). Nevertheless, there was a slight portion of the fathers who were below 20 years (8%) which was strange, but none of the mothers were below 20 years.

On the type of family, most of the respondents came from families with both parents (74.7%), followed by those from single mothers (18.6%), then those from mother and stepfather families (2.4%), father and stepmother (1.8%). single father (1.5%), and from other family dynamics, such as being raised by a guardian instead of their parents (1.1%). Based on these results, it can de deduced that most of the respondents had both parents.

1.1.  Different Parenting Styles Employed by the Respondents’ Parents

The study set out to establish the different parenting styles employed by parents of children in the target population. PDSQ was used to assess this, and all the scores ticked ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’ were tallied for each respondent, and the means within each parenting style were obtained. The distribution of each of the parenting style categories was as depicted in Table 4.1.1.

Table 4.1.1: Distribution of Parenting Styles among the Respondents from Different Family Backgrounds

The findings described in Table 4.1.2.indicate that most of the respondents’ parents used the authoritarian parenting style (70.4%), while other parenting styles scored as follows: Authoritative (16.1%), a combination of authoritarian and authoritative (8.7%), permissive (1.5%), and dismissive (1.3%). There were no differences in parenting styles used based on family background (p=.457). The findings are further demonstrated in Figure 4.1.1.

Figure 4.1.1.: Parenting Styles used by Respondents’ Parents

1.2.  Type of Self-esteem Associated with Different Parenting Styles among the Children in the Target Group

Self-esteem was assessed using a 58-item self-report questionnaire, where 50 of the items gave a total self-esteem score, which was then multiplied by 2 to give total score of 100. The total scores were then classified as ‘very high’ self-esteem (81-100), ‘high’ self-esteem (70-80), ‘moderate’ self-esteem (50-69) and ‘low’ self-esteem (0-49). The total scores were calculated for only those who had completed all the 58 questions and they were 539 in total. The rest of the 219 respondents had either one or two blank answers hence these were not included in the total scores tally.

The frequencies for the self-esteem status are shown in both Table 4.1.2. and Figure 4.1.2.

Table 4.1.2: The Frequencies of Respondents’ Self-esteem Status

Figure 4.2.1: Frequencies of Respondents’ Self-esteem Status

Table 4.1.2. and Figure 4.1.2. render the frequencies of the self-esteem status among the respondents. The overall mean was 34.02(SD=5.38). A skewness = -.400 and kurtosis=0.055 show that the data was nearly symmetrical and close to the mean. Almost half the respondents had moderate self-esteem (45.5%), followed by those with high self-esteem (38.6%), and only a few had low self-esteem (5.8%).

Defensiveness, parenting styles and self-esteem

To determine if the respondents were defensive, that is, faking good regarding their self-esteem status, cross-tabulations were done between self-esteem total scores and the defensive scale, as demonstrated in Table 4.1.3.

Table 4.1.3: Cross-tabulations between Defensiveness and Self-esteem

The results captured in Table 4.1.3.reveal a statistically significant relationship between defensiveness and self-esteem (p=0.000), showing that respondents were defensive or faking good about their self-esteem status. It can be seen that 254(50.2%) of the respondents were defensive or ‘faking good’ while 252 (49.8%) were not defensive about their self-esteem. Most of the respondents who self-reported ‘very high self-esteem’ (75.5%) were faking good, as well as most of those who reported ‘high self-esteem’ (54%). Thus, almost half of the respondents were realistic about their self-esteem, and another half were faking good.

Based on the findings, the relationship between the defensive scale and parenting styles was also sought to assess the parenting styles associated with defensiveness. The defensive scale was used to measure whether the respondents were lying about their self-esteem or not, and the results were as captured in Table 4.1.4.

Table 4.1.4: Parenting Styles Associated with Defensiveness among Respondents

According to the findings (see Table 4.1.4), the authoritative parenting style had a negative relationship with defensiveness (r=-0.021). Similarly, the permissive parenting style had a weak negative relationship with defensiveness (r=-0.006). On the other hand, the authoritarian parenting style had a positive relationship with defensiveness (r=0.35). In the same vein, the dismissive parenting style had a positive relationship with defensiveness (r=0.011). This suggests that respondents raised by either authoritarian or dismissive parents may try ‘to fake good.’

Parenting styles and self-esteem

The direction of the relationship (correlation) between parenting styles and self-esteem was also sought, and the correlations are presented in Table 4.1.5. The Pearson Correlation coefficient (r) was used to assess the direction of the relationship where r= 0 to -0.4 indicates a weak negative relationship and r= -0.5 to -1 indicates a strong negative relationship. On the other hand, r=0 to 0.4 indicates a weak positive relationship, and r=0.5 to 1 indicates a strong positive relationship.

Table 4.2.7: Correlations between Parenting Styles and Respondents’ Self-esteem

As demonstrated through Table 4.1.5, self-esteem had a very weak negative relationship with authoritative parenting style (r= – 0.17), authoritarian had a strong negative relationship with self-esteem (r= – 0.51), permissive had a weak positive relationship with self-esteem (r=0.027), and dismissive had a weak positive relationship with self-esteem (r= 0.030).

In addition, parenting styles were cross tabulated against self-esteem, and distinctions were made between respondents who were defensive and those who were not defensive, as depicted in Table 4.1.6.

Table 4.1.6: Relationship between Self-esteem, Parenting Styles and Defensiveness

In Table 4.1.6, the relationship between parenting styles (AN, AT, D, P, I) and self-esteem for those who were defensive and those who were not is depicted. Findings indicate that among those who were not defensive, self-esteem was related to parenting styles (p=.027).Similarly, among those who were defensive, self-esteem was related to parenting styles (p=0.040).

1.3.  Relationship between Sociodemographic Characteristics, Parenting styles, and Self-Esteem among Non-defensive Children in the Target Group

Table 4.1.7.: Parenting Style & Self-esteem Status by Grade of Non-defensive Respondents

Table 4.1.7. presents the correlation test between self-esteem, parenting styles, and respondents’ grade among those respondents who were non-defensive. The findings reveal a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem based on grade/class for those in grade/class 7 (p=0.022) and grade/class 8(p=0.002). Hence, parenting styles influenced the self-esteem of respondents in grades/classes 7 and 8.

Table 4.1.8.: Parenting Style and Self-esteem Status by Age of the Non-Defensive Respondents

The findings, as seen in Table 4.1.8, on the correlation test between self-esteem, parenting styles, and respondents’ age among those who were non-defensive, revealed a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem based on age (p=0.027), showing that the age of the respondents influenced both parenting styles and self-esteem of the respondents.

Table 4.1.9.: Parenting Style and Self-esteem Status by Gender for the Non-Defensive Respondents

A correlation test was done between self-esteem, parenting styles, and respondents’ gender among those who were non-defensive, and the results (see Table 4.27) revealed a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem based on gender (p=0.027). This suggests that the gender of the respondents influenced both parenting styles and the self-esteem of the respondents.

Table 4.1.10.: Parenting Style and Self-esteem Status by Age of Respondent’s Mother for the Non-Defensive Respondents

When a correlation test was done between self-esteem, parenting styles, and respondents’ mothers’ ages among those who were non-defensive, a statistically significant relationship was found between parenting styles and self-esteem among respondents whose mothers were between 26-30 years(p=0.005) (see Table 4.28). This indicates that parenting styles influenced the self-esteem of the respondents among respondents whose mothers were between 26-30 years.

Table 4.1.11.: Parenting style and Self-esteem Status by Age of Respondent’s Father for the Non-Defensive Respondents

As captured in Table 4.1.11the correlation test between self-esteem, parenting styles, and respondents’ fathers’ ages among those who were non-defensive showed a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem among respondents whose fathers were between 31-35 years (p=0.000) and between 35-40 years (p= .000). Hence, parenting styles influenced the self-esteem of the respondents among respondents whose fathers were between 31-40 years.

Table 4.1.12.: Parenting Style and Self-esteem Status by Family Type for the Non-Defensive Respondents

A correlation test between self-esteem, parenting styles, and family type among those who were non-defensive demonstrated a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem among respondents from single-mother families (p= .001) (see Table 4.3.12). This leads to the deduction that parenting styles of single mothers influenced the self-esteem of the respondents.

Summary of Key Findings

Although there was no statistical significance difference (p=.457) among the parenting styles, the results show a variety of parenting styles employed. The prevalent parenting style was the authoritarian style with 70.4% while the least used was the dismissive approach with 1.3%. The other parenting styles were represented as follows: authoritative (16.1%), permissive (1.5%),and authoritarian and authoritative (8.7%).

On the types of self-esteem associated with different parenting styles, the study established the following:

1. Self-esteem had an overall mean of 34.02(SD=5.3). Most respondents presented with moderate self-esteem (45.5%) while few presented with low self-esteem (5.8%).
2. Self-esteem was found to have a negative relationship with the authoritative (r= – 0.17) and authoritarian (r= -0.51) parenting styles. Conversely, permissive (r= 0.027) and dismissive (r = 0.030) parenting styles had a positive relationship with self-esteem.

On the relationship between socio-demographic characteristics, parenting styles and self-esteem revealed, the findings were as follows:

1. Age, grade, and gender of the non-defensive respondents influenced both parenting styles and self-esteem (p=0.027).
2. Parenting styles influenced the self-esteem of the non-defensive respondents whose mothers were between 26-30 years (p=0.005) and 35-40 years (p=0.011).
3. Parenting styles influenced self-esteem among non-defensive respondents whose fathers were between 31-40 years (p=0.000).
4. The parenting styles of single mothers significantly influenced non-defensive respondents’ self-esteem (p= 0.001).

Summary

This chapter has presented the study data as well as the analysis and interpretation of the data as per the study objectives. Additionally, a summary of the key findings has been provided.

DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

The chapter discusses findings in line with the objective of the study. The findings are compared with those of other studies globally, regionally, and locally. From the findings, conclusions are drawn, recommendations made, and areas for further research suggested.

Parenting Styles Employed among Children in Late Childhood and Adolescence in Tumaini Primary School, Kayole Zone

Although there was no statistically significant difference in the parenting styles used (p= 0.457), the results of the study indicated a high use of the authoritarian parenting style (70.4%) and a low use of the dismissive parenting style (1.3%). This can be explained by the fact that most parents prefer the use of the authoritarian parenting style because it helps keep children in line or under control. The prominent use of the authoritarian parenting style may be attributable to some factors, for example:

1. The cultural background of parents (Akande, 2021). Most parents are raised using the African culture as a guide hence tend to bring up their children based on the same cultural principles.
2. The environment the child is raised in. This study was conducted in an urban set-up comprising middle to low-income families. In urban settlements, most parents lack emotional bonding with their children due to work or life imbalances. Therefore, they often tend to experience pressure from multiple hardships and adversities, such as financial stress, work-related stress, and coping with their physical and mental health (Hendriati & Okvitawanli, 2019). Additionally, the urban set-up is often associated with the rise of gangs or unwanted teen pregnancies.

Apparently, the dismissive parenting style was found to be least practiced among children in late childhood and adolescence in most African parents’ households (Stephinah, 2014). It is believed that early parental participation in children’s lives is crucial as it steers them in the right direction, resulting in their success in different aspects of life. This would explain why the dismissive parenting style is least used among the target group of this study; children are highly valued in the community. Therefore, despite there not being a significant relationship among the parenting styles employed, there was a clear spread of various parenting styles employed among the respondents in Tumaini Primary School.

Types of Self-Esteem Associated with Different Parenting Styles among Children in Late Childhood and Adolescence in Tumaini Primary School, Kayole Zone

The results of this study indicated a low prevalence of self-esteem with a mean (M) of 34.02 +/- 5.38, whereby 45.5% of respondents presented with moderate self-esteem while 5.8% presented with low self-esteem. Hence, moderate self-esteem was considered more prevalent among pupils in Tumaini Primary School despite the self-esteem mean being low. The low self-esteem mean can be associated with the high use of the authoritarian parenting style among the pupils in late childhood and adolescence in Tumaini Primary School.

According to Erik Erickson’s psychosocial stages of development, the respondents in this study are in stages four and five of the developmental stages. In these stages, the children are seeking for affirmation as they become industrious, hone their skills, socialize and establish their sense of self (Mcleod, 2023). Therefore, if parents and society disregard children’s need for affirmation, children’s self-esteem may be negatively affected. Further, the study findings showed a statistically significant relationship between defensiveness and self-esteem (p=0.000): 50.2% of the respondents were lying about their self-esteem status while 49.8% were honest. Consequently, most self-esteem scores from the respondents were not accurate and therefore misleading. The defensiveness trait is partly caused by and commonly associated with low self-esteem development and the use of the authoritarian parenting style (Coambs, 2021). This could explain why more than half of the pupils in this study’s target population portrayed defensive tendencies in their self-esteem responses as authoritarian parenting emerged as the most prevalent.

This study’s findings also established that the authoritarian parenting style had a positive relationship with defensiveness (r=0.35). In the same vein, the dismissive parenting style had a positive relationship with defensiveness (r=0.011). This may be attributed to most of the pupils’ parents employing the authoritarian parenting style (70.2%). Parents who employ the authoritarian parenting approach are often strict and demanding of their children. This may make the children grow to become good liars in an effort to conceal their true feelings and avoid punishment (Morin, 2022).

The uninvolved parenting style may have also contributed to defensiveness due to its nature and common association with low self-esteem development (Sanvictores & Mendez,2021; Wignall, 2021). However, regardless of whether the pupils were being defensive or not, parental involvement proved to be key in the development of self-esteem due to their significant relationship [(p=0.040), (p=0.027) respectively]. Therefore, a significant relationship was established between parenting styles and self-esteem among children in late childhood and adolescence.

The study found a weak negative association between the use of the authoritative parenting style and self-esteem (r= -0.17). Therefore, the use of the authoritative parenting style may have led to moderate or low self-esteem development among the respondents in the study. In concurrence to this finding, Navuluri (2023) stated that often the authoritative parenting style cultivates high self-esteem. Nevertheless, without the right balance the parental approach may be too lenient or strict, neither of which is considered good. For example, once the use of the authoritative parenting style tilts its balance more towards demandingness and responsiveness declines, the development of low self-esteem in children may be imminent.

The authoritarian parenting style was found to have a strong negative relationship with self-esteem (r= -0.51). Thus, the employment of the authoritarian parenting style led to low self-esteem development among the pupils due to the strong negative association the variables have. Pham and Ng (2019) opined that a child’s low perception of self unfolds due to the nature of the authoritarian parenting style’s high demandingness and low warmth. When a parent is more controlling than receptive, autonomy is often withdrawn. The lack of autonomy diminishes a child’s sense of self while magnifying self-doubt.

The permissive parenting style was found to have a weak positive relationship with self-esteem (r=0.027). As such, the use of the permissive parenting style resulted in a significant positive development of self-esteem. Furthermore, as the children grow older, they credit their sense of liberty and high self-esteem to the use of the permissive parental approach. This is because parents who use the permissive parenting style are known to be very protective, caring, and affectionate while being highly responsive to their child’s emotional and physical needs.

The study also found the dismissive parenting style to have a weak positive relationship with self-esteem (r= 0.030). Therefore, the pupils’ parents’ withdrawal of warmth and love significantly led to the development of a high type of self-esteem. In line with this, Higuera (2019) found that the dismissive parenting style enables children to learn self-reliance. As such, through independence, children raised using the dismissive parenting approach are self-motivated, able to take care of themselves, and know how to cope in difficult situations. Thus, a child may develop high self-esteem because of the exposure and use of the uninvolved parenting style.

The Relationship between Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents, their Self-Esteem, and Parenting Styles Employed among Children in Tumaini Primary School, Kayole Zone

Despite most of the socio-demographic characteristics having no statistical significance difference with both parenting styles and self-esteem, correlation tests were conducted with the same variables among non-defensive respondents for accurate results. The findings revealed a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem based on gender (p=0.027). Therefore, gender of the non-defensive respondents influenced a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles employed and the self-esteem developed.

Gender greatly predicts and influences the choice of parenting style used and self-esteem developed which is attributed to the developmental differences as well as cultural expectations of each gender (Vyas et al., 2016). When contrasted to males, female children are more socially attuned as well as have a more advanced sensory and cognitive development, while male children are prone to be aggressive as well as become more physically active than their counterparts (Martin & Ruble, 2013). Hence, such gender developmental differences may significantly inform a parent’s choice of parenting style and may affect the self-esteem of children in late childhood and adolescence either negatively or positively.

These results are similar to Gilli’s (2016) finding that gender influenced both parenting styles used, and self-esteem developed among children (p<.01). According to Gilli’s study, the use of authoritative parenting style was preferred in raising males compared to females due to the male’s superiority, thus, high self-esteem development among the males as compared to their female counterparts.

The relationship between two socio-demographic characteristics (age and grade), parenting styles, and self-esteem remained statistically significant (p=0.027) throughout this study whether the respondents were being defensive or not, implying that both age and grade of the respondents contributed significantly to the relationship between the parenting styles employed and self-esteem development. Notably, children in grades 7 (p=0.022) and 8 (p=0.002) were found to be greatly influenced by the relationship (the results showed exceedingly low p-values). Pupils in grades7 and 8 are in the adolescence stage (identity versus role confusion) whereby they are developing their sense of self as they explore independence. Accordingly, parental involvement is needed to guide the children as they continue being industrious in their actions and social (McLeod, 2023).

Nevertheless, heavy parental involvement may be detrimental to children’s success at this stage of development if their parents are more demanding and less receptive This concurs with studies reviewed that found that both the age and grade of children in adolescence influenced the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem [(r=0.26; 95%-CI; 70.5%(rho=0.107)] (Mwadime & Gatua, 2022; Pinquart et al., 2019). These studies indicated a positive significant association among the variables due to the common use of authoritative parenting style among 11-14-year-olds and pupils in grades 5 to 8. This resulted in the development of high self-esteem in the pupils.

In addition, the study results indicated that among non-defensive respondents’ mothers’, a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles employed and self-esteem developed was observed – 26-30 years (p=0.005) and 35-40 years (p=0.011). This implies that mothers between the ages of 26-30 and 35-40 years significantly influenced their children’s self-esteem which was dependent on the parenting style each mother employed. These results are supported by a study carried out in Iran that found a positive significant relationship between self-esteem development and the parenting styles employed among children between the ages of 8 to 11 years old (p<0.05) (Moghaddam et al., 2017).

Generally, the parenting style the mothers employed in raising their children contributed significantly to the children’s self-esteem development. Similarly, there was a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem among non-defensive respondents’ fathers between the ages of 31-40 years old (p=0.000). This led to the deduction that fathers between the ages of 31-40 years old affected the self-esteem development of their children negatively through the parenting style they employed.

In line with Erik Erickson’s psychosocial stages of development, both genders of the respondents’ parents mentioned above qualify for young adulthood (18-40 years old). This phase is greatly characterized by the exploration of personal relationships as well as formation of intimate relationships (Sutton, 2020). Additionally, during this period, adults are finalizing their education, taking on their careers, getting married, and having children.

Therefore, this group of adults may be faced with financial and emotional instability which may be attributed to the external environment (Bredehoft, 2021). Hence, issues that young adults face may greatly determine their choice of parenting styles, which would consequently inform self-esteem development among children. Kim et al. (2018) maintained that parents in lower parental ages predict harsher and less supportive parenting styles. This is attributed to such parents going through challenges, having a lower income status, being inaccessible to their children, and being less involved in their children’s lives.

As for family or household type, a significant relationship was evident between parenting styles and self-esteem among non-defensive respondents(p=0.027) with the single-mother household type being the most significant (p=0.001). According to the Annie E. Casey Foundation(2022), single-mother households are more likely to live in poverty and stress due to the constant struggle these mothers go through as they cater to their families’ basic needs. Due to this, children in these households are less likely to spend time with their mothers owing to the mothers’ busy work schedules. In turn, this has a negative effect on the children’s emotional and behavioral development, leading to low self-esteem and mental health issues such as depression (The Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2022).

These results are in line with those of South African study which found that most of the caregivers of children between the age of 9 to 13 years were mothers (82%) (Gilli, 2016). As a result, the study found a statistically significant relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem development (p< .01). Therefore, single-mother households greatly impact the self-esteem of children in late childhood and adolescence through the parenting style employed.

Conclusion

The study established a high prevalence on the use of the authoritarian parenting style (70.4%) among the respondents who comprised children in late childhood and adolescence. The study also observed that the use of authoritarian parenting style among the respondents has greatly negatively affected their self-esteem, resulting in a low mean of 34.02+/-5.38 with moderate self-esteem being dominant among the respondents (45.5%). Nevertheless, across all the self-esteem sub-scales, most of the respondents were reported to have high self-esteem in all scales. The use of authoritarian as well as dismissive parenting styles, which was highly associated with defensiveness, informed low self-esteem development.

Half of the respondents were found to fake good about their self-esteem status which could be linked to their lack of confidence or fear of stigmatization from their peers. If this is left unaddressed, the result may be increasingly poor overall developmental outcomes since high defensiveness is greatly related to low self-esteem and the use of authoritarian parenting styles.

Additionally, socio-demographic factors were determined to significantly contribute to the choice of parenting styles employed and self-esteem developed among the respondents. This leads to the conclusion that parenting styles have a significant relationship with self-esteem development among children in late childhood and adolescence, thus being able to affect their self-esteem either negatively or positively.

Recommendations

Practice Recommendations

1. Schools’ administrations can make counseling services more available to pupils by recruiting more qualified counselors and establishing counseling departments in the schools. This would ensure that pupils can easily access the necessary help, consequently helping their self-esteem development.
2. Provision of services for mentoring and guiding pupils, such as teaching life skills, fostering a friendly learning environment, and seminars. These can greatly help boost children’s overall development and performance in different spheres of their lives.
3. Schools’ administrations can endeavor to be more innovative in their reward system whereby pupils would be recognized for their positive efforts either in class or in other activities. This is important because it can contribute to boosting the pupils’ self-esteem.

Policy Recommendations

1. There County Government of Nairobi can recruit more qualified professional counselors for the public primary schools in Embakasi West Sub-County.
2. There is need for sensitization of parents on the different parenting styles practiced and the effects of each style on the self-esteem of children in late childhood and adolescence. Through this, parents would be better informed regarding the parenting styles that elicit high self-esteem in children.
3. Forums can be provided for parents to learn from one another through sharing their experiences in parenting, consequently implementing best practices in their parenting for the benefit of their children.
4. The need for teachers to be psycho-educated on how to care for and be sensitive to children exhibiting self-esteem challenges.

Recommendations for Further Research

1. Since this study was conducted in an urban public primary school, a comparative study can be conducted in a rural public primary school to compare the results.
2. A study focusing on the impact of self-esteem on the social development of children in late childhood and adolescence.
3. An assessment of the impact of self-esteem on the academic development of children in late childhood and adolescence.
4. A study on the impact of parenting styles on the personality development of children in late childhood and adolescence.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to thank the almighty God for his sustenance and never-ending blessings during the period of my academic journey. It was not easy, but He saw me through, May His mighty name be praised.

I would also like to acknowledge my mother for being my pillar of strength and support in life and, most importantly, throughout my postgraduate studies. Your love, immense prayers, and encouragement have guided me throughout my master’s program, and have brought me to where I am today.

I cannot forget to extend my gratitude and love to my supervisors, Dr. Susan Muriungi and Dr. Ann Mwiti, for their unwavering encouragement, support, counsel, dedication, and attention throughout the whole process of my thesis writing.

Lastly, I am truly thankful to the Tumaini Primary School administration, teachers, support staff and pupils for granting me permission to collect data and for their hospitality.

DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to all children globally whose self-esteem has been affected negatively or positively due to the use of different parenting styles.

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APPENDIX A:

Study Questionnaire

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

Kindly tick or fill in the spaces provided.

1. Tick your class/grade: Grade 4  Grade 5  Grade 6  Class 7  Class 8
2. Tick your age bracket in years:

Below 9 yrs. 

9yrs -11yrs 

12yrs-15yrs 

 Above 15 yrs 

3. What is your gender?         Male                    Female 

4. What is your parents’ age bracket in years?

Mother	Father
Below 20 yrs.	Below 20 yrs.
Between 21 – 35 yrs.	Between 21 – 35 yrs.
Between 26 – 30 yrs.	Between 26 – 30 yrs.
Between 31 – 35 yrs.	Between 31 – 35 yrs.
Between 35 – 40 yrs.	Between 35 – 40 yrs.
Above 40 yrs.	Above 40 yrs.
I do not know	I donot know

5. Whom do you live with?

Mother & Father                     

Single Mother                         

Single Father                           

Mother and Stepfather          

Father and Stepmother         

Others (specify) ________________

SECTION B: PARENTING STYLE

For each of the following statements, kindly tick on the statement that applies to how your parents handle you. Try to read and think about each statement as it applies to you and your parents during your years of growing up at home. Please be sure not to omit any items. For each statement 5 options namely ‘Strongly Agree’ (5), ‘Agree’ (4), Neither Agree or Disagree (3), ‘Disagree’ (2), ‘Strongly Disagree’ (1) are given

SECTION C: COOPERSMITH SELF-ESTEEMINVENTORY-LONGFORM

Please mark each statement in the following way:

If the statement describes how you usually feel, put a tick (ü) in the column & “Like Me”

If the statement does not describe how you usually feel, put a tick (ü) in the column “Unlike Me”

There are no right or wrong answers.

1. I spend a lot of time daydreaming
2. I am pretty sure of myself
3. I often wish I were someone else
4. I am easy to like
5. My parents and I have a lot of fun together
6. I never worry about anything
7. I find it very hard to talk in front of the class
8. I wish I were younger
9. There are a lot of things about myself I would change if I could
10. I can make up my mind without too much trouble
11. I am a lot of fun to be with
12. I get upset easily at home
13. I always do the right thing
14. I am proud of my school work
15. Someone always has to tell me what to do
16. It takes me a long time to get used to anything new
17. I am often sorry for the things I do
18. I am popular with children my own age
19. My parents usually consider my feelings
20. I am never unhappy
21. I am doing the best work that I can
22. I give in very easily
23. I can usually take care of myself
24. I am pretty happy
25. I would rather play with children younger than me

26. My parents expect too much of me
27. I like everyone I know
28. I like to be called on in class
29. I understand myself
30. It is pretty tough to be me
31. Things are all mixed up in my life
32. Children usually follow my ideas
33. No one pays much attention to me at home
34. I never get scolded
35. I am not doing as well in school as I would like to
36. I can make up my mind and stick to it
37. I really do not like being a boy (girl)
38. I have a low opinion of myself
39. I do not like to be with other people
40. There are many times when I would like to leave home
41. I am never shy
42. I often feel upset in school
43. I am not as nice looking as most people
44. If I have something to say, I usually say it
45. Children pick on me very often
46. My parents understand me
47. I always tell the truth
48. My teacher makes me feel I am not good enough
49. I do not care what happens to me
50. I am a failure
51. I get upset easily when I am scolded
52. Most people are better liked that I am
53. I usually feel as if my parents are pushing me
54. I always know what to say to people
55. I often get discouraged in school
56. Things usually do not bother me
57. I cannot be depended on
58. I like most things about myself

APPENDIX B:

Plagiarism Report