Analysing Students’ Metacognitive Knowledge on Oral Presentation Assessment

Analysing Students’ Metacognitive Knowledge on Oral Presentation Assessment

Nur Asyikeen Kamarudin

Department of English Language and Linguistics, Academy of Language Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Melaka Branch, Malaysia

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8100081

Received: 26 September 2024; Accepted: 03 October 2024; Published: 05 November 2024

ABSTRACT

Understanding students’ metacognitive knowledge is crucial for developing and validating an effective oral assessment method that accurately measures their proficiency. However, students face challenges particularly in communicative competence, as it often requires internal cognitive processes and strategies, which can be complex and difficult to adapt. Drawing upon this predicament, the present study aims to explore how students demonstrate their metacognitive knowledge through oral presentation assessment and aid in the composition of metacognitive strategies to facilitate effective oral presentation. A total of 85 bachelor’s degree students’ responses were qualitatively analysed by deploying the thematic analysis, whereby word lists and keywords were examined in context. Individually, the students were given metacognitive prompts after they had completed the first assessment, which was an individual in-class presentation. The responses provided an opportunity to explore the features that construct metacognitive strategies for effective presentations. Based on the responses, three features: 1) preparation, 2) self-monitoring, and 3) self-evaluation were identified according to the process of developing and delivering an oral presentation. After that, a framework of metacognitive strategies for effective oral presentations was developed based on the responses that were immersed in metacognitive knowledge responses. The practical oral assessment metacognitive strategies provide insights into how students reflect on their thinking, plan their learning strategies and assess their understanding and oral presentation skills. The infusion of these features into the existing process should also assist in identifying and addressing barriers to students’ language learning and proficiency. Consequently, it can lead to more personalized and effective language teaching approaches, supporting students’ overall cognitive and language development.

Keywords: Metacognitive knowledge, Oral presentation, Metacognitive strategies, Cognitive and language development

INTRODUCTION

Metacognitive knowledge, which refers to the awareness and understanding of one’s thinking processes, is increasingly recognised as a crucial factor in language assessments. This kind of knowledge plays an imperative role in supporting learners to master various language skills, including writing, reading, speaking, and listening. By being aware of their own thinking and learning strategies, students can better understand and improve their language proficiency. The profound impact of metacognitive knowledge on language learning underscores the necessity for a new approach to assessing this aspect of cognition (Teng & Mizumoto, 2024). Traditional language assessments often focus solely on language proficiency, but metacognitive skills are equally crucial for effective language learning. Assessing metacognitive knowledge can provide valuable insights into a learner’s ability to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning process, which are essential to successful language acquisition (Siregar et al., 2024). In their study, Zhang and Guo (2020) emphasised the significance of metacognitive knowledge in language learning and its potential impact on assessment strategies. By incorporating measures of metacognitive awareness into language assessments, educators can better understand and support students in developing effective learning strategies, ultimately leading to improved language proficiency.

When students possess explicit metacognitive knowledge about the requirements of a task, it empowers them to reflect upon and determine the most effective strategy to employ (Msaddek, 2024). This capability allows students to play an active role in their learning process and discover optimal strategies to reinforce their acquired knowledge. This advantage is rooted in their cognitive ability to efficiently process and retain new information (Madaminjon o’g’li, 2024). Consequently, this enhanced cognitive function leads to improve test performance, better learning outcomes, and overall academic achievement.

Several studies have focused on the types of strategies learners use while reading, writing, speaking, and listening, as well as the conditions under which they use these strategies. Teng and Qin (2024) emphasise the roles of metacognitive writing strategies in the performance of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in multimedia writing. This study supports the application of self-regulated learning theory in educational psychology to applied linguistics, particularly in EFL writing research in multimedia environments. Meanwhile, Razzaq and Hamzah (2024) investigate the role of metacognitive writing strategies (MWS) in writing performance, mediated by willingness to write (WTW) among English as a Second Language (ESL) learners. It is revealed that the combination of MWS and WTW is crucial to improve learners’ writing performance. Another recent study on speaking skills reveals that metacognitive strategies can improve students’ speaking skills (Rastriaji, 2024). Most of the students achieved high scores, and there was a significant increase in the students’ speaking skills before and after they were taught using a metacognitive strategy. Additionally, Ahmadi Safa and Motaghi (2024) confirm that metacognitive scaffolding strategies significantly affected EFL learners’ listening development compared to cognitive scaffolding strategies and non-scaffolding instruction.

Specifically, the present study aims to explore how students demonstrate metacognitive knowledge through their oral presentation assessment. It offers insights into how students reflect on their thinking, plan their learning strategies, and assess their understanding and oral presentation skills. Consequently, this can pave the way for more personalised and effective language teaching approaches, ultimately supporting the students’ overall cognitive and language development.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Metacognitive Development

Flavell (1971) introduced the concept of metacognition to describe learners’ awareness of their own cognitive processes (Drigas et al., 2023). He also coined the term “metamemory” to refer to an individual’s ability to oversee the intake, storage, retrieval, and management of their own memories. Subsequently, Nelson and Narens (1994) developed a metacognitive theoretical framework that introduced the concept of meta-levels, describing the interaction between object-level and meta-level in self-monitoring and self-control processes. Other studies then attempted to further explore the layered approach of metacognition (Drigas & Mitsea, 2021). In recent years, the concept of metacognition has received new emphasis due to the critical requirement to equip self-regulated learners capable of employing digital technologies as self-learning tools (Santoso et al.).

Flavell (1979) comprehensively categorised metacognitive knowledge into three dimensions: person, task, and strategy. In this framework, person knowledge denotes individuals’ understanding of the various personal and universal factors that influence cognitive activity. This includes factors such as one’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses and broader influences such as emotions and motivations. Task knowledge involves the awareness individuals possess regarding how the nature and characteristics of the information being processed can impact their cognitive activity. This encompasses understanding the complexity, relevance, and organisation of the information being dealt with. Finally, strategy knowledge encompasses the knowledge individuals possess about the methods and techniques they can employ to achieve specific cognitive goals. This includes understanding various problem-solving strategies, memorization techniques, and other cognitive tools that can be deployed in different situations. In a subsequent work, Flavell (1987) underscored the significance of comprehending these three categories of metacognitive knowledge. This understanding allows individuals to internalize metacognitive knowledge and effectively utilize it in regulating their own cognitive activity. By recognizing their own cognitive strengths and weaknesses, understanding the nature of the tasks they are undertaking, and being equipped with an array of cognitive strategies, individuals can effectively monitor, control, and optimize their own cognitive processes.

Meanwhile, Lebuda and Benedek (2023) examined the concept of creative cognition, which encompasses not only the processes involved in generating a creative response but also the evaluative and strategic processes that ensure the effective use of cognitive resources. These processes include monitoring task progress, reconsidering task strategies, and evaluating potential responses. The researchers proposed a systematic framework of creative metacognition (CMC), which draws on recent advances in metacognition theory and extends them to address the specifics of creative cognition. The CMC framework comprises two dynamic components; monitoring and control, and a more static component of metacognitive knowledge, each encompassing metacognitive processes related to task level, performance, and responses. They illustrate the dynamic nature of creative metacognition (CMC) within the context of creative ideation, providing an overview of relevant core cognitive and metacognitive processes for the three CMC components: metacognitive knowledge, monitoring, and control across pre-task, task, and post-task stages (see Fig. 1). In this present study, this framework forms the basis for developing metacognitive strategies aimed at enhancing effective oral presentations.

Figure 1. A Dynamic Conception of Creative Metacognition (CMC) Exemplified in the Context of Creative Ideation.

Source: Lebuda and Benedek (2023)

Metacognitive Knowledge in Cognitive and Language Development

In recent years, there has been an expansion of Flavell’s concept of metacognitive knowledge to encompass language teaching and learning. This shift has prompted an examination of both teachers’ and students’ metacognitive knowledge of various language teaching and learning strategies within an academic context. In a study conducted by Yüce et al., (2023), the focus was on the interaction among teachers’ job-related metacognition, diversity acceptance, and self-efficacy. This study used a survey of 606 pre-service EFL teachers in Turkey to assess the levels of metacognitive knowledge, openness to diversity and challenge, and creative self-efficacy, as well as their relationships. The study found that individuals had moderate metacognitive knowledge (X̄ = 3.91), openness to diversity and challenge (X̄ = 3.97), and creative self-efficacy (X̄ = 5.18). Additionally, the Pearson correlations revealed positive moderate correlations between the constructs, and path analysis regression also revealed that metacognitive knowledge is a major predictor of openness to diversity and challenge, with creative self-efficacy mediating the relationship.

On the other hand, several studies have focused on metacognitive growth, focusing on learners’ metacognitive knowledge. Syatriana (2024) investigated how college students observe Metacognitive knowledge of Reading Techniques (MARSI), a questionnaire designed to assess students’ knowledge of reading techniques while reading literary works. The findings of the study indicated that the participants consistently applied these academic reading strategies and demonstrated a strong familiarity with them. Academic reading students used and understood reading techniques the least, even though they were aware of and employed problem-solving techniques most of the time. They were aware of and frequently employed problem-solving strategies, but when it came to academic reading, they employed the fewest supporting strategies.

Another study examined the effects of involvement in load-based tasks on vocabulary learning in a foreign language, as well as the extent to which task effects are predicted by learners’ metacognition such as metacognitive knowledge and regulation (Teng & Zhang, 2024). The Metacognitive Awareness Inventory was used to assess learners’ metacognitive knowledge and regulation, while the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale was adapted to measure condition effects. The results showed that the group of learners who completed reading and writing tasks using a digital dictionary performed the best in terms of acquiring receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge, followed by the reading and writing groups, the reading and gap-fill group, and finally the reading only group.

Meanwhile, Chero (2023) examined the effect of metacognitive instruction on listening performance and metacognitive awareness. The study compared two groups of EFL low-level learners: skilled listeners and less-skilled listeners. Prior to the instructions, they were asked to complete the Metacognitive Awareness of Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) as well as an open-ended questionnaire to assess their metacognitive awareness. Learners took two standardized listening tests, a pre-test and a delayed test, to examine the influence of the instruction on their listening performance, as well as the MALQ and an open-ended questionnaire to assess their metacognitive awareness following the intervention. The results of the two listening tests demonstrated that less-skilled listeners’ scores improved dramatically following the intervention. Furthermore, the MALQ and open-ended questionnaire results revealed that both types of learners improved significantly in two MALQ factors (person knowledge and strategy use), indicating that the intervention was effective in improving participants’ listening performance and metacognitive awareness.

Research carried out by Kobayashi (2020) revealed the effects of metacognitive instruction in oral communication for EFL students throughout a semester. The questionnaire results revealed that students in the treatment program improved their ability to learn independently. Furthermore, the treatment group showed a larger improvement in interactional competence, regulation of cognition, cognitive strategies, and interaction strategies. Furthermore, it was discovered that learners with low interactional skills in the treatment group benefited the most from such metacognitive instruction.

Other research has investigated the development of metacognitive knowledge in the context of language learning, such as vocabulary breadth (Teng & Zhang, 2023), morphological awareness (Teng & Zhang, 2022), and reading and writing (Teng & Zhang, 2021). There were constant improvements in metacognitive knowledge across young language learners, demonstrating the need to increase learners’ metacognitive awareness to improve language learning results. The development of metacognitive knowledge was found to be linked to these language-related abilities. This shows that as students more aware of metacognitive knowledge, their language skills increase. These findings emphasize the need to develop metacognitive awareness and techniques in language learners in order to improve their overall language learning outcomes.

METHODOLOGY

Study Participants

In total, 85 bachelor’s degree students from the Faculty of Business and Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Melaka City Campus, Malaysia, participated in this study. The participants are those who have taken English for Business Communication (LCC503) as the subject requisite for the first semester students. As part of the first assessment, which was ‘Business Pitching Presentation’, they had to pitch a new product, idea or service. Among them, 82% (n = 70) were female students, while 18% (n = 15) were male students, and their mean age was 21 years.

Procedures

Individually, the students were given metacognitive prompts after they had completed the first assessment, which was an individual in-class presentation. The metacognitive prompts were in the form of questions: 1) What are your general feelings about the presentation as a whole? 2) What did you do well? 3) What could you improve upon? 4) What would you do differently next time? 5) Having been through the process, you know more now than you did before and 5) What advice would you give someone planning a presentation for the first time? Given that the questions were designed to highlight the metacognitive knowledge of the oral presentations, the responses presented an opportunity to explore the features that construct the metacognitive strategies of the students towards effective presentation.

Data Processing and Analysis

A total of 85 responses were qualitatively analysed in this study by deploying the thematic analysis, whereby word lists and keywords were examined in context. Next, through selective coding of the 85 responses, several techniques (repetitions, transitions, similarities & differences, and linguistic connectors) prescribed by Ryan and Bernard (2003) were performed. As even a single response arrived at multiple theses, the analytical process was performed repetitively until reaching a consensus. After that, a framework of metacognitive strategies for effective oral presentations was developed based on the responses that were immersed in metacognitive knowledge responses.

RESULTS

Based on the responses, three features: 1) preparation, 2) self-monitoring, and 3) self-evaluation were identified according to the process of developing and delivering an oral presentation. Table 1 describes in detail the three features identified in this study.

Table 1. Features, Elements and Incidences

DISCUSSION

The first feature that occurs in pre-presentation is ‘Preparation’. This is where metacognitive learners need to define their learning tasks, decide what they are supposed to do, and gain an understanding of what a successful outcome will be. This consists of setting clear goals, identifying suitable approaches, organizing information, and practising.  They also have to consider the overall context of the oral presentation assessment, including the target audience and the format of a business pitch to ensure the right allocation of cognitive resources is met. Predicting one’s own level of performance on a task could facilitate metacognition as well (Witherby et al, 2023). In organizing information, specific key points need to be structured in a logical manner, making the presentation more engaging and effective. Practising is also crucial for building confidence and honing presentation skills.  Practice the presentation in a comfortable and familiar environment can help reduce anxiety without the added pressure of an unfamiliar setting. These are illustrated in some of the following responses provided by the participants:

Organize all point points clearly and prepare visual aids.

Practising and preparing are the keys to effective presentations. I believe practicing helps me a lot to gain more confidence.

Be more prepared, don’t rely too much on the script. Understand clearly what is being presented.

I could refine my skills in delivering the presentation and my main ideas to make it more concise and focused without the unnecessary details.

I need to understand all of my points so I can explain well even if I get a brain lock.

I would allocate more time to practice for a smoother delivery and to increase my confidence level.

I would make sure to practice more consistently and thoroughly, focusing specifically on techniques to manage and reduce nervousness.

Follow the basic format of the presentation slides; need to understand the whole topic of your presentation to avoid getting blank during the presentation.

Have a clear understanding of the audience and message, have a full understanding of the presentation so that you are not relying on a heavy script and practice delivery to build confidence.

Prepare in advance and practice every day to reduce nervousness and increase your confidence level.

Avoid memorizing the script word for word. Instead, concentrate on understanding the main ideas you intend to express. This method provides for a more natural delivery and flexibility throughout the presentation.

Do a lot of practice because the more you practice, the better your presentation will be.

Practice presentation multiple times to build confidence.

Make sure to practice beforehand and try to make your presentation look more natural.

Know your audience by tailoring the content to meet their expectations, keeping it simple by using visual slides and staying authentic.

Try to organize the points well before presenting.

Prepare early and keep on practising at least a week before the presentation to cater for the nervousness.

Please be well prepared. Practice in front of the mirror. Understand your assignment and points, so if you forgot your points, you can still elaborate with confidence.

Do the outline properly and be confident when presenting.

Prepared well and made sure to understand the whole presentation before explaining it to the audience.

The second feature that occurs during the presentation is ‘Self-Monitoring’. Metacognitive learners engage in self-monitoring in order to carefully evaluate their own progress and performance. This self-assessment also allows them to make any necessary adjustments to their strategies and behaviours to ensure that they are on track to achieve their goals. This comprises being confident, controlling nervousness, engaging with the audience, and using effective language throughout the presentation. It is also considered as a real-time awareness of how they are doing in the relevant tasks (Cini, 2023).  Being confident can be built up through a good posture, which not only helps us to appear more confident but also helps us feel more confident. Our facial expressions can also reveal our emotions and affect how the audience perceives us. So, maintaining neutral or positive facial expressions helps us to project confidence and composure.

In order to control nervousness, one should have positive affirmations which can help to maintain a positive mindset. Instead of viewing the nervousness as a negative, view it as a sign of excitement and passion for the topic. This shift in perspective can help to deliver the presentation with more energy and enthusiasm. Nervous energy can also enhance our presence on stage. It can make us more alert and responsive, helping to connect with the audience and respond to their reactions. The use of language should also be concise, clear and constructive, which can help make the presentation more engaging. Some of the best approaches for effective communication are speaking in a manner that can be easily understood and simplifying the information (Kamarudin et al, 2022).

The following lists some of the responses given by the participants in light of this feature:

I delivered my presentation confidently and effectively engaged with the audience.

I believe my interaction with the crowd was quite strong. I made an intentional effort to engage with them, asking questions, encouraging involvement, and maintaining eye contact throughout.

I managed to keep myself calm during the presentation and delivered my points to the audience. I also managed to catch the attention of the audience very much.

I try to control my nervousness so that I can present well.

I recognize the opportunity to refine my communication style and presentation approach to better engage and persuade audiences to consider using or purchasing the products. Incorporating elements of persuasion and addressing my nervousness will be key areas for improvement.

I could try to speak more naturally or relax and interact more with my audience.

Try to maintain eye contact with the audience when presenting. I also want to do the presentation in a calm and relaxed manner.

I try to be more confident and speak clearly when presenting the topic.

I need to elaborate the details clearly by using simpler words and sentences so that the audience can understand more.

Use simple vocabulary to make sure the audience understands my presentation.

I will improve my two-way communication with the audience to make them more focused.

Be confident when presenting and try to engage with the audience more.

Do not hold any texts or gadgets while presenting in order to show respect to the audience. It is not just that, it shows the credibility of your presentation.

Do breathing exercises before starting to reduce nervousness.

Firstly, speak confidently and focus more on delivering the context that you want to convey to the audience. Next, they need to be able to attract the attention of the audience so they will listen and focus on the presentation.

Don’t put too much pressure on yourself and present confidently.

Make sure to have eye contact with your audience and try to make more gestures that can get rid of the nervousness.

We need to prepare ourselves to always be in a calm state and always practice in front of other friends so that the feeling of nervousness will be reduced to some extent, and we will be able to present perfectly.

We need to be confident no matter what topic we need to present. Other than that, the contents and slides need to be explained clearly so that the audience understands what you are going to say.

It is important to fully understand what you are delivering to people, and it is also important to maintain eye contact with the audience.

The third feature that occurs in post-presentation is ‘Self-Evaluation’. Metacognitive learners engage in self-evaluation of a summative nature at the completion of oral presentation assessment. This self-evaluation involves making informed judgments about the processes and outcomes of their thinking and learning by assessing their performance after completing the task. This includes acknowledging themselves and taking note of the feedback, which allows them to effectively plan for and enhance their performance in future assessments.  When they acknowledge their own strengths and successes, they are engaging in a powerful process that physically alters their brains (Silver, 2023). This alteration enables them to become more attuned to evidence of their capabilities and achievements, which in turn reinforces their belief in their own potential. As they continue to strengthen these belief systems, they can experience a significant boost in confidence, resilience, and motivation, empowering them to tackle challenges and pursue their goals. By evaluating their performance, individuals can gain a deeper understanding of their own learning processes, identify areas of difficulty, and proactively implement targeted measures to improve their overall learning outcomes. Handling feedback effectively can also demonstrate your knowledge and confidence and thus, provide valuable insights for improving your future presentation. These are illustrated in some of the responses given by the participants:

Overall, I am pretty pleased with the presentation. I received some positive feedback both during and after the presentation, which boosted my faith and confidence level.

I feel I properly prepared the information, making it relevant and well-organized.

I managed to present my business pitch well and was able to make my classmates understand what I wanted to say.

I’m content with how I performed and how thoroughly prepared I was. The product I selected was also excellent, as it was easily understandable to everyone.

It feels interesting when I get to see everyone, even myself, standing in front of the audience and getting the experience of giving a speech or ideas of my own innovations. This has not just brought me out of my comfort zone but also boosted my confidence to deliver ideas in front of an audience.

I felt proud of myself for being able to finish it despite being in a very difficult situation for me to handle.

Overall, I’m delighted with how I interacted with the audience and conveyed my point.

I think I did very well despite thinking that I could have provided some more details so that the audience could have a better understanding of the topic.

I see a chance to improve my presentation by going into further detail about my product’s features. I feel that by offering more extensive explanations and highlighting the unique benefits of each feature, I will be able to better display the value proposition and address any potential audience queries.

I could consider focusing on improving my delivery style, refining my content for clarity and relevance, and working on engaging the audience more effectively with a good attention-getter. Additionally, I aim to present without any serious hand or voice shaking or other signs of nervousness.

I could improve to talk more and elaborate myself better for the next presentation to achieve good marks.

Next time, I’ll aim to boost my creativity, reduce presentation anxiety, and improve my communication skills even further.

For future presentations, I intend to make certain changes to provide a more engaging experience for the audience. One thing I’ll work on is making my presentations more visually appealing and attention-grabbing. By including additional images, graphics, and maybe even multimedia aspects, I aim to pique the audience’s interest and encourage them to ask questions.

Based on the three features: 1) preparation, 2) self-monitoring, and 3) self-evaluation, a framework of metacognitive strategies for oral presentation assessment was developed to facilitate effective presentation. The framework is guided by the present analysis, and organised in a manner where all themes are conceptually coherent. The proposed framework, Practical Oral Presentation of Metacognitive Strategies (See Figure 2.) denotes a process that facilitates effective presentation for the students. This process is divided into three stages; the pre-presentation stage, the during-presentation stage, and the post-presentation stage, each of which incorporates three key features: 1) preparation, 2) self-monitoring, and 3) self-evaluation. It starts with the pre-stage, where ‘preparation’ takes place to allow the students to set goals, identify suitable approaches, organise information and practise. Next, as the students engage in self-monitoring during the presentation, they exhibit of being confidence, control their nervousness, engage with the audience, and use effective language throughout the presentation. The post-stage displays the self-evaluation where they need to acknowledge themselves and take note of feedback for future planning and development.

Figure 2. Practical Oral Presentation of Metacognitive Strategies

The Practical Oral Presentation of Metacognitive Strategies is derived from Lebudak and Benedek’s (2023) concept of creative cognition. They emphasize the crucial need for evaluative and strategic processes to ensure the effective use of cognitive resources. These processes include monitoring task progress, reconsidering task strategies, and evaluating potential responses which led to the development of a systematic framework of creative metacognition (CMC). This framework comprises two dynamic components; monitoring and control, and a more static component of metacognitive knowledge, each encompassing metacognitive processes related to task level, performance, and responses. They illustrate the dynamic nature of creative metacognition (CMC) within the context of creative ideation, providing an overview of relevant core cognitive and metacognitive processes for the three CMC components: metacognitive knowledge, monitoring, and control across pre-task, task, and post-task stages. These components contribute to the development of the present framework, Practical Oral Presentation of Metacognitive Strategies, which is based on insights into how students reflect on their thinking, plan their learning strategies and assess their understanding and oral presentation skills. The primary focus is on the three distinct stages relative to task performance (pre-task, during-task, and post-task), which encompass three components which are preparation, self-monitoring and self-evaluation.

The presented framework extends metacognitive processes from an educational perspective, particularly on language teaching and learning. It corroborates with the recent studies that emphasize the significance of metacognitive knowledge for learners where they must be capable of organizing, monitoring, and assessing their learning process (Teng & Mizumoto, 2024; Siregar et al., 2024). The metacognitive knowledge also signifies the potential impact on assessment strategies. It is confirmed that by incorporating measures of metacognitive awareness into language assessments, educators can better understand and support students in developing effective learning strategies, ultimately leading to improved language proficiency (Zhang & Guo, 2020). This will pave the way for implementing more personalized and effective language teaching methods, unequivocally supporting the overall cognitive and language development of the students.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusively, the three key features identified in this study: 1) preparation, 2) self-monitoring, and 3) self-evaluation, led to the development of the Practical Oral Presentation of Metacognitive Strategies that facilitates effective oral presentation. This framework aids the learners to equip themselves with better presentation skills and become more aware of the crucial role of being a good presenter all around.

However, this study had certain limitations. These are mainly attributed to the limited sample diversity, which poses challenges for generalizing the findings to broader populations. Therefore, broadening the sample to encompass students from diverse backgrounds and institutions could enhance the study’s relevance and fortify the conclusions drawn. The dependence on self-reported data also contributes to bias and is susceptible to errors. Including a quantitative component (for example, pre- and post-assessment scores or surveys measuring the effectiveness of metacognitive strategies) would strengthen the qualitative findings and thus, improve the study’s transparency and provide direction for future research.

It is recommended that this framework be developed into an interactive multimedia e-module as a learning and teaching resource. Knowing the feasibility of interactive multimedia, the module also incorporates simulations in order to facilitate learners in both independent and conventional learning. The infusion of these features into the existing process should assist in identifying and addressing barriers to students’ language learning and proficiency. The framework has also contributed additional empirical evidence to the current literature on metacognitive frameworks. It is hoped that the theoretical formalizations provided by this framework will guide and facilitate future systematic research towards a more comprehensive understanding of oral presentation cognition.

REFERENCES

1. Ahmadi Safa, M., & Motaghi, F. (2024). Cognitive vs. metacognitive scaffolding strategies and EFL learners’ listening comprehension development. Language Teaching Research, 28(3), 987-1010. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211021821
2. Chero, C. A. C. (2023). The impact of metacognitive instruction on EFL low-level learners’ listening performance and metacognitive awareness. International Journal of Instruction, 16(2), 291-306.
3. Çini, A., Järvelä, S., Dindar, M., & Malmberg, J. (2023). How multiple levels of metacognitive awareness operate in collaborative problem solving. Metacognition and Learning, 18(3), 891-922.
4. Ahmadi Safa, M., & Motaghi, F. (2024). Cognitive vs. metacognitive scaffolding strategies and EFL learners’ listening comprehension development. Language Teaching Research, 28(3), 987-1010. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211021821
5. Chero, C. A. C. (2023). The impact of metacognitive instruction on EFL low-level learners’ listening performance and metacognitive awareness. International Journal of Instruction, 16(2), 291-306.
6. Çini, A., Järvelä, S., Dindar, M., & Malmberg, J. (2023). How multiple levels of metacognitive awareness operate in collaborative problem solving. Metacognition and Learning, 18(3), 891-922.
7. Drigas, A., Mitsea, E., & Skianis, C. (2023). Meta-learning: A Nine-layer model based on metacognition and smart technologies. Sustainability, 15(2), 1668.
8. Drigas, A., & Mitsea, E. (2021). 8 Pillars × 8 Layers Model of Metacognition: Educational Strategies, Exercises &Trainings. Int. J. Online Biomed. Eng. 17, 115–134.
9. Flavell, J. H. (1987). Speculations about the nature and development of metacognition. Metacognition, motivation and understanding/Lawrence Erlbaum.
10. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906
11. Kamarudin, N. A., Hamzah, F., Ismail, S., & Talaue, F. G. (2022). Improving Age-Friendly Environment through Pragmatic Language. Environment-Behaviour Proceedings Journal, 7(19), 37-42.
12. Kobayashi, A. (2020). Examining the effects of metacognitive instruction in oral communication for EFL learners. Journal of Asia TEFL, 17(2), 597.
13. Lebuda, I., & Benedek, M. (2023). A systematic framework of creative metacognition. Physics of Life Reviews.
14. Madaminjon o’g’li, B. M. (2024). The concept and role of metacognition in language acquisition. Journal of New Century Innovations, 53(3), 200-206.
15. Msaddek, M. (2024). The impact of explicitness-based training in (meta) cognitive reading strategies on Moroccan EFL learners’ reading comprehension scores in English (L3): A comparison between high school-level and university-level students. European Journal of Applied Linguistics Studies, 7(1).
16. Nelson, T.O., & Narens, L. (1994). Why Investigate Metacognition. In Metacognition: Knowing about Knowing; The MIT Press; Volume 13, pp. 1–25.
17. Rastriaji, F. (2024). The effectiveness of meta-cognitive strategy in learning speaking at senior high school grade eleventh (students with low ability) (Doctoral dissertation, Universitas Jambi).
18. Razzaq, S., & Hamzah, M. H. (2024). The integration between metacognitive writing strategies and willingness to write: A way to expediate writing performance of Pakistani ESL learners a mixed-methods approach. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 10, 101010.
19. Ryan, G. & Bernard, H. (2003). Techniques to Identify Themes. Field Methods – FIELD METHOD. 15. 85-109. 10.1177/1525822X02239569.
20. Santoso, H. B., Riyanti, R. D., Prastati, T., Susanty, A., & Yang, M. (2022). Learners’ online self-regulated learning skills in Indonesia Open University: Implications for policies and practice. Education Sciences, 12(7), 469.
21. Silver, N., Kaplan, M., LaVaque-Manty, D., & Meizlish, D. (Eds.). (2023). Using reflection and metacognition to improve student learning: Across the disciplines, across the academy. Taylor & Francis.
22. Siregar, R. A., Lengkanawati, N. S., & Damayanti, I. L. (2024). Metacognitive strategies in mediating EFL adult learners’ self-regulated language learning: a systematic review. LLT Journal: A Journal on Language and Language Teaching, 27(1), 252-272.
23. Syatriana, E. S. (2024). University students’ metacognitive knowledge on reading technique and academic success. Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Ve Eğitim Dergisi, 6(10), 169-190.
24. Teng, M. F., & Mizumoto, A. (2024). Validation of metacognitive knowledge in vocabulary learning and its predictive effects on incidental vocabulary learning from reading. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, (0).
25. Teng, M. F., & Qin, C. (2024). Assessing metacognitive writing strategies and the predictive effects on multimedia writing. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2024.2325132
26. Teng, M. F., & Zhang, D. (2024). Task-induced involvement load, vocabulary learning in a foreign language, and their association with metacognition. Language Teaching Research, 28(2), 531-555. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211008798
27. Teng, M.F., Zhang, L.J. (2023). Ethnic minority multilingual young learners’ longitudinal development of metacognitive knowledge and breadth of vocabulary knowledge. Metacognition Learning 19, 123–146 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-023-09360-z
28. Teng, M. F., & Zhang, L. J. (2022). Development of metacognitive knowledge and morphological awareness: A longitudinal study of ethnic minority multilingual young learners in China. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1-17.
29. Teng, M. F., & Zhang, D. (2021). Task-induced involvement load, vocabulary learning in a foreign language, and their association with metacognition. Language Teaching Research, 28(2), 531-555. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211008798
30. Teng, L. S. (2022). Self-regulated learning and second language writing: Fostering strategic language learners (Vol. 26). Springer Nature.
31. Witherby, A. E., Carpenter, S. K., & Smith, A. M. (2023). Exploring the relationship between prior knowledge and metacognitive monitoring accuracy. Metacognition and Learning, 18(2), 591-621.
32. Yüce, E., Kruk, M., & Derakhshan, A. (2023). Metacognitive knowledge and openness to diversity and challenge among Turkish pre-service EFL teachers: The mediating role of creative self-efficacy. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 50, 101386.
33. Zhang, X., & Guo, M. (2020). Metacognition and second language learning. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 428.