Assessing the Influence of Virtual Reality on Industrial Design Student’s Performance with Varying Levels of Spatial Ability

Assessing the Influence of Virtual Reality on Industrial Design Student’s Performance with Varying Levels of Spatial Ability 

Azmir Mamat Nawi¹, Siti Suhaily Surip², Nurullizam Jamiat³, Hasnul Azwan Azizan⁴  

^1,4Industrial Design Department, College of Creative Arts, Universiti Teknologi MARA. Cawangan Kedah, Malaysia 

^1,2Department of Product Design, School of Arts, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia

³Centre for Instructional Technology & Multimedia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.803328S

Received: 21 September 2024; Accepted: 26 September 2024; Published: 26 October 2024

ABSTRACT

The rapid advancement of technology has introduced virtual reality (VR) as a transformative educational tool, particularly in fields like industrial design that demand high  levels of spatial cognition and visualization. However, disparities in spatial ability among students present significant challenges to achieving equitable learning outcomes. This study aims to assess the influence of VR on industrial design students’ performance, with a specific focus on how varying levels of spatial ability moderate this relationship. By investigating whether VR enhances the spatial reasoning skills of students with low spatial ability and comparing the performance of students with high and low spatial ability in VR environments, the study seeks to explore VR’s potential as an equalizing tool in design education.

A quasi-experimental design was employed, with 100 industrial design students in Malaysia participating in pre- and post-tests to assess their spatial reasoning and design performance. Students were divided into high and low spatial ability groups based on standardized test results. Following an immersive VR design task intervention, both quantitative data (paired t-tests and ANOVA) and qualitative feedback from surveys and interviews were analyzed to assess performance changes and students’ perceptions of VR.

The findings indicate that VR significantly enhances design performance for all students, with particular benefits for those with lower spatial ability. VR serves as a compensatory tool, helping to bridge the performance gap between students with different spatial abilities. The study’s implications suggest that incorporating VR into design education can promote more inclusive learning environments, allowing students of varying spatial abilities to improve their skills. However, further research is needed to explore the long-term effects of VR on spatial ability and its applicability across different educational contexts and disciplines.

Keywords: Virtual Reality (VR), Spatial Ability, Industrial Design Education, Immersive Learning, Performance Gap in Education

INTRODUCTION

The rapid advancement of technology in education has positioned virtual reality (VR) as a transformative tool for learning and skill development across various disciplines(AlFarsi et al., 2021). In particular, fields such as industrial design, which demand high levels of spatial cognition and visualization, have seen increasing interest in adopting VR to enhance students’ performance and educational outcomes(Zhang et al., 2023). Globally, educators and researchers are exploring the potential of VR to address significant challenges in design education, particularly the varying levels of spatial ability among students, which can significantly affect their academic performance and capacity to visualize complex 3D forms(M. D. Brazley, 2018; Williams et al., 2019). With the growing prominence of digital tools in education, understanding how VR influences students with different spatial abilities has become a critical issue that impacts not only individual student success but also broader educational strategies and curricula in design programs(Chao & Chang, 2020; Molina-Carmona et al., 2018).

Spatial ability—the capacity to understand, reason, and remember spatial relations among objects—is a key predictor of success in design-related fields(Porat & Ceobanu, 2024; Tiwari et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2023). It plays a crucial role in tasks such as mental rotation, spatial visualization, and 3D manipulation, all of which are essential for industrial design students who must conceptualize, prototype, and bring design ideas to fruition (Ali et al., 2024; Ernst et al., 2015). However, a global challenge in design education is the significant variation in spatial ability among students. This disparity often leads to unequal learning outcomes, with students possessing higher spatial skills outperforming those with lower spatial abilities in design tasks(Setiyo HP et al., 2020).As industrial design programs increasingly incorporate technology into their pedagogies, VR has emerged as a potential equalizer by offering immersive and interactive environments where students can develop and apply spatial skills(Conesa et al., 2023).

Despite the promise of VR, research on its efficacy in improving the performance of students with varying levels of spatial ability remains limited(Choo et al., 2021). Recent studies indicate that VR can significantly enhance spatial reasoning skills by enabling students to engage with 3D models and environments more intuitively than traditional 2D methods(Carbonell-Carrera et al., 2021; Halik & Kent, 2021). However, according to Cho & Suh,(2023) the extent to which VR mitigates performance differences based on spatial ability has yet to be fully explored, addressing this gap is crucial as educators and institutions seek to optimize the use of VR technology to support diverse student populations and improve learning outcomes in industrial design programs.

In Malaysia, the integration of technology in education, particularly in fields such as industrial design, is a growing priority aligned with the nation’s efforts to achieve a knowledge-based economy under initiatives such as the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015–2025 (Higher Education) (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2015)(Almawaldi & Sharif, 2020; MOHE, 2017). The use of VR in educational settings, including higher learning institutions, has gained momentum due to its ability to enhance teaching and learning experiences. For industrial design students, VR presents an opportunity to engage in immersive and interactive design processes, helping to bridge gaps in spatial reasoning and design visualization (Jimeno-Morenilla et al., 2016a). However, disparities in spatial ability remain a key challenge in Malaysian higher education, with students demonstrating varied performance levels in spatially demanding tasks (Hall et al., 2022).

According to recent data from the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education, there has been a 15% increase in the adoption of digital tools, including VR, in technical and vocational education and training (TVET) programs across universities and polytechnics since 2020 (MOHE, 2017). This trend highlights the growing recognition of VR’s role in enhancing students’ design capabilities, particularly in fields like industrial design, where spatial skills are critical(Conesa et al., 2023). However, studies show that Malaysian students still face significant challenges related to spatial ability, with 35% of students in design programs reporting difficulty with tasks that require 3D visualization and spatial reasoning(Che Din et al., 2018). As Malaysia strives to modernize its education system, understanding how VR can mitigate these challenges and improve outcomes for students with varying levels of spatial ability is crucial to ensuring more equitable access to high-quality education . By assessing the influence of VR on industrial design students in Malaysia, this study seeks to provide insights that can inform curriculum development and teaching practices in local universities. It also aims to highlight the potential of VR in leveling the playing field for students with lower spatial ability, thus contributing to broader discussions on inclusive education in Malaysia’s higher learning institutions(Shih et al., 2019).

Numerous studies have highlighted the significance of spatial ability in design education, with a particular emphasis on how students with higher spatial skills tend to outperform their peers in tasks requiring 3D visualization and manipulation (Kok & Bayaga, 2019). Spatial ability is one of the strongest predictors of success in engineering and design courses, where mental rotation and spatial reasoning are integral to student performance(Sorby & Haartman, 2000; Uttal et al., 2013). This is particularly evident in industrial design programs, where students are tasked with visualizing complex designs, constructing models, and making design adjustments based on their spatial understanding. Studies suggest that students with lower spatial ability often struggle with these tasks, leading to disparities in academic achievement and overall performance(Hegarty & Waller, 2004; Sorby, 2009).

To address these challenges, emerging technologies such as virtual reality have been investigated for their potential to enhance spatial skills and level the playing field for students with lower spatial ability. A study by Conesa et al., (2023) found that immersive VR environments significantly improved spatial reasoning skills among design students by providing them with the opportunity to engage in hands-on, 3D design activities that are otherwise difficult to replicate in traditional classroom settings. Similarly, (M. D. Brazley, 2018)showed that VR-based learning tools allowed students to interact with digital models in real-time, fostering a deeper understanding of spatial relationships and enhancing their ability to visualize and manipulate 3D forms. These findings are consistent with studies from Malaysia, where Molina-Carmona et al., (2018) demonstrated that students using VR for industrial design tasks reported greater confidence and competence in spatial tasks, particularly among those who initially struggled with spatial reasoning.

In light of these findings, there is growing support for the integration of VR into design education to improve outcomes for students with varying levels of spatial ability. The ability of VR to provide immersive, interactive experiences that engage students in the design process has been shown to significantly reduce the performance gap between students with high and low spatial abilities(Carbonell-Carrera et al., 2020; Cho & Suh, 2023; Roca-González et al., 2017). This is particularly relevant for Malaysian higher education institutions, where the diverse student population often presents challenges in ensuring equitable learning experiences. As past research has suggested, targeted use of VR in educational settings may offer a viable solution to these challenges, helping students develop crucial spatial skills while also promoting inclusivity in design education (M. D. Brazley, 2018; J. Lee et al., 2023) .

Notwithstanding the encouraging results from previous studies, numerous research gaps persist, especially on the distinct impact of virtual reality on students with differing spatial abilities. Although many studies have investigated the overall advantages of VR in improving spatial reasoning, there is a limited of research specifically analysing the varying effects of VR on students with low versus high spatial abilities in industrial design education (Betts et al., 2023; Lin & Suh, 2021; Seabrook et al., 2020). Furthermore, several current research emphasise short-term enhancements in spatial abilities without evaluating the long-term retention or practical application of these skills in design tasks(Betts et al., 2023; Lin & Suh, 2021). In the realm of Malaysian higher education, where disparities in spatial abilities among students are evident, there is a necessity for comprehensive research that assesses the efficacy of virtual reality in enhancing spatial skills and explores how this technology can be customised to suit students with varying cognitive profiles(Betts et al., 2023; Wan Yahaya & Ahmad, 2017).

The primary objective of this study is to assess the influence of virtual reality on the performance of industrial design students with varying levels of spatial ability. Specifically, this research aims to: (1) investigate whether VR-based design tasks enhance the spatial reasoning skills of students with low spatial ability, (2) compare the performance of students with high and low spatial ability in VR-based learning environments, and (3) evaluate the potential of VR as a tool to bridge the performance gap between students with different spatial capabilities. By addressing these objectives, the study seeks to provide valuable insights that can inform the development of more inclusive and effective design education practices.

Structure of the Article

The remainder of this article is organized as follows. Section 2 reviews the relevant literature on spatial ability, virtual reality, and design education, highlighting key studies and theoretical frameworks that inform this research. Section 3 outlines the research methodology, including the quasi-experimental design, participant selection, and data collection methods. Section 4 presents the findings of the study, with an in-depth analysis of the performance outcomes of students with varying spatial abilities in VR environments. In Section 5, the results are discussed in the context of the existing literature, emphasizing the implications for industrial design education in Malaysia. Finally, Section 6 concludes the paper by summarizing the key contributions, limitations of the study, and potential directions for future research.Top of FormBottom of Form

LITERATURE REVIEW

Defining and Explaining the Relationship between Influences of Virtual Reality on Industrial Design Students’ Performance and Varying Levels of Spatial Ability

Virtual reality (VR) has become an increasingly popular tool in education, particularly in fields that require high levels of spatial cognition, such as industrial design. Spatial ability, which includes skills such as mental rotation, spatial perception, and spatial visualization, is a critical cognitive function that influences students’ ability to visualize and manipulate three-dimensional (3D) objects (Darwish et al., 2023; Dünser et al., 2006; Lin & Suh, 2021). The relationship between VR and spatial ability in industrial design education can be understood through the ways in which VR provides an immersive, hands-on environment that fosters spatial reasoning, thus potentially enhancing students’ performance regardless of their initial spatial ability (Carbonell-Carrera et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2022)

Studies have shown that students with higher spatial ability generally perform better in industrial design tasks that require 3D visualization and manipulation, as these tasks closely align with the cognitive demands of spatial reasoning (Busheska & Lopez, 2022; Katona & Nagy, 2019). VR can enhance this performance by providing an interactive, immersive environment where students can experiment with 3D models and concepts in real time. For students with lower spatial ability, VR offers a significant advantage by providing more intuitive and direct interaction with spatial tasks, allowing them to develop and strengthen their spatial skills over time (Di & Zheng, 2022; Sun et al., 2019).

In Malaysia, the integration of VR in educational settings, particularly in design-related fields, has gained traction as a method to bridge the performance gap between students with varying spatial abilities (Adnan, 2020; Goi, 2024; Subramaniam, 2023).  A study by Adnan, (2020)found that VR-based learning environments improved students’ ability to visualize complex designs and significantly boosted the confidence of students with lower spatial ability. This relationship suggests that VR may serve as an equalizing tool in industrial design education by offering low-ability students an accessible way to improve their spatial reasoning skills, which in turn enhances their overall design performance (Alias et al., 2002; M. D. Brazley, 2018; Molina-Carmona et al., 2018; Xiao et al., 2023).

Theoretical Foundations and Models

Several theories and models provide a framework for understanding the relationship between VR, spatial ability, and performance in educational settings. Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), developed by Sweller 1988, is particularly relevant, as it explains how VR can reduce extraneous cognitive load by allowing learners to directly manipulate objects in a virtual environment(Sweller, 2011). VR’s ability to provide immediate feedback and immersive learning experiences aligns well with the principles of CLT, which posits that reducing unnecessary cognitive effort allows learners to focus more on core tasks like developing spatial reasoning skills (Sweller et al., 2019).

Another relevant theoretical model is Dual-Coding Theory (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Culatta & Kearsley, 2024), which suggests that humans process visual and verbal information through two distinct channels. By engaging both visual and kinesthetic modalities, VR environments provide a more comprehensive learning experience, particularly beneficial for students with lower spatial ability (Mayer, 2014). Research by Betts et al., (2023) suggests that the multi-sensory learning experiences afforded by VR can significantly improve students’ spatial visualization skills, allowing them to better internalize complex 3D concepts.

Furthermore, Constructivist Learning Theory, introduced by Piaget and later expanded by Vygotsky (Van Hoose, 2020), highlights the importance of active learning and interaction in cognitive development. In industrial design education, VR supports a constructivist approach by allowing students to engage in experiential learning, where they can manipulate virtual objects and design environments, construct knowledge, and apply it in real-world tasks (Andalib & Monsur, 2024; Hamurcu et al., 2020). Studies have confirmed that this type of active learning in VR environments is particularly effective in enhancing spatial ability and improving design performance (Betts et al., 2023).

Research Gaps and Conclusion

Despite the significant potential of VR to enhance spatial ability and industrial design performance, several research gaps remain. First, much of the existing research has focused on short-term outcomes, with limited attention paid to the long-term effects of VR on spatial ability and design skills (Betts et al., 2023). Future research should explore whether the gains in spatial reasoning observed in VR environments are sustained over time and translate into improved real-world design performance. Longitudinal studies could provide valuable insights into how VR shapes cognitive development in design students over their academic careers (Betts et al., 2023; Cho & Suh, 2023; Di & Zheng, 2022).

Second, while VR has shown promise in improving the performance of students with lower spatial ability, the extent to which it can close the performance gap between high- and low-ability students remains unclear (Di & Zheng, 2022; E. A.-L. Lee & Wong, 2014; Molina-Carmona et al., 2018; Safadel & White, 2020). Some studies suggest that high-ability students may also benefit significantly from VR, potentially widening the gap rather than closing it. Further research is needed to explore how VR-based interventions can be tailored to meet the specific needs of students with varying spatial abilities, ensuring that the technology serves as an inclusive tool for all learners (Safadel & White, 2020).

Lastly, there is a need for more region-specific research, particularly in the context of Malaysia and other developing countries. While studies have begun to examine the impact of VR in Malaysian higher education, more comprehensive analyses are required to understand how cultural, technological, and institutional factors influence the adoption and effectiveness of VR in design education (Hii, 2024; Safadel & White, 2020). Additionally, research should explore how the cost and accessibility of VR technology may affect its implementation in resource-constrained educational environments (Hii, 2024; Safadel & White, 2020).

In conclusion, the relationship between VR, spatial ability, and industrial design performance is well-established, with VR offering a promising avenue for enhancing students’ spatial reasoning and design capabilities (Cho & Suh, 2023; Safadel & White, 2020). Theoretical models such as Cognitive Load Theory, Dual-Coding Theory, and Constructivist Learning Theory provide a robust framework for understanding the mechanisms through which VR enhances learning outcomes (Cho & Suh, 2023; Mayer, 2020). However, future research must examine the long-term effects of virtual reality and the subtleties of its efficacy for students with varying spatial abilities and the specific challenges of implementing VR in diverse educational contexts (Betts et al., 2023; Cho & Suh, 2023). Addressing these gaps will be critical for maximizing the potential of VR as a tool for inclusive and effective design education.

Table 1: Past studies on the influences of virtual reality (VR) on industrial design students’ performance and varying levels of spatial ability

Research on the effects of virtual reality (VR) on industrial design students’ performance, particularly concerning their varying levels of spatial ability, has yielded diverse findings across multiple studies. For instance, Sanchez-Sepulveda et al., (2019) conducted a case study involving architecture students using VR, demonstrating that it enhances decision-making, representation abilities, and overall participative learning in design education. Similarly, Chang, (2014) explored 3D-CAD applications in high school students, revealing that VR significantly improves creative performance, especially among students with better spatial abilities. Spatial abilities were found to be moderately correlated with creative performance in aesthetics.

In more recent studies, Drey et al.,(2023) observed that students with higher spatial abilities completed object manipulation tasks in VR faster, indicating a direct influence of spatial abilities on task efficiency. Additionally, (Zhang et al., 2023) identified the advantages of integrating VR into design practices, though they also noted barriers related to learning efforts and system investments. Meanwhile, Banerjee et al., (2023) compared VR-based 3D modeling tools with conventional software, finding that VR enhanced engagement and spatial visualization, especially in collaborative settings, though conventional tools provided more precision.

In terms of spatial task performance, Cho & Suh, (2023) found that while students performed better in spatial visualization tasks in static modes, VR significantly improved mental rotation tasks. This was further supported by Gittinger & Wiesche, (2023), whose systematic review revealed that VR training benefits learners with high spatial abilities, while potentially disadvantaging those with lower spatial abilities. Lastly, (J. Lee et al., 2023)highlighted the benefits of VR in interior design, emphasizing that it improved spatial relationship perception and decision-making, with students reporting higher usability and engagement in comparison to traditional methods.

Together, these studies illustrate that while VR is a powerful tool for enhancing design education, its effectiveness is strongly influenced by students’ spatial abilities, with high spatial ability students generally benefiting more from VR environments.

To support the study on the influence of Virtual Reality (VR) on industrial design students’ performance and varying levels of spatial ability, several key psychological and educational theories can be used. These theories provide a foundation to explain how VR impacts both performance and spatial ability in design students (Cho & Suh, 2023; Mayer, 2020).

Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1988)

Theory Overview: Cognitive Load Theory suggests that learning is impacted by the mental effort required to process information. In tasks where high cognitive demands are placed on working memory, performance can suffer. VR can reduce this cognitive load by providing immersive, intuitive environments that facilitate spatial reasoning and design exploration without overwhelming the cognitive system.

Connection to the Study:

• Influence of VR on Performance: VR helps to reduce the cognitive load in tasks involving complex spatial relationships by offering real-time feedback and immersive experiences. For industrial design students, this can improve performance by allowing them to interact with and manipulate 3D objects more efficiently, thus focusing on creative problem-solving rather than interpreting 2D representations.
• Varying Levels of Spatial Ability: Students with lower spatial abilities tend to experience higher cognitive load in traditional design environments. VR can mitigate this by providing direct spatial experiences, allowing students with lower spatial abilities to better understand spatial relationships and improve their performance.

Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1971)

Theory Overview: Dual-Coding Theory posits that humans process information through two cognitive systems: one for verbal information and another for visual information. Learning and performance are enhanced when both systems are activated simultaneously, as is often the case in VR environments where verbal instructions and visual representations coexist.

Connection to the Study:

• Influence of VR on Performance: VR supports dual coding by presenting spatial and visual information in a format that is directly connected to the design task. Industrial design students are able to visualize and manipulate objects while receiving verbal or written guidance, enhancing their understanding and retention of complex design principles.
• Varying Levels of Spatial Ability: For students with varying levels of spatial ability, VR’s immersive 3D environment supports both verbal and visual learning, allowing students with lower spatial ability to compensate for deficits by utilizing the visual system more effectively.

Constructivist Learning Theory (Vygotsky, 1978)

Theory Overview: Constructivist theory emphasizes that learners construct their knowledge through interaction with their environment. According to Vygotsky, social interaction and contextual experiences are key to learning, and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) highlights how learners achieve more with support than independently.

Connection to the Study:

• Influence of VR on Performance: In VR, industrial design students interact with simulated environments that mirror real-world design contexts, supporting active learning and experimentation. The real-time feedback and opportunities for collaboration in VR environments align with constructivist principles, helping students to build their understanding through exploration.
• Varying Levels of Spatial Ability: VR facilitates learning by allowing students to operate within their ZPD. Students with lower spatial abilities can benefit from guided interactions and manipulations in VR environments, receiving “scaffolding” in the form of tools and visual aids that help bridge the gap between their current abilities and desired performance.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner, 1983)

Theory Overview: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences suggests that individuals have different kinds of intelligences, such as spatial, linguistic, logical-mathematical, and others. Spatial intelligence is particularly relevant to design and architecture students.

Connection to the Study:

• Influence of VR on Performance: VR caters to students with high spatial intelligence by allowing them to explore 3D objects and environments in ways that align with their cognitive strengths. For industrial design students, VR enables a hands-on approach to learning that is well-suited to spatial reasoning and problem-solving.
• Varying Levels of Spatial Ability: Students with lower spatial abilities may not naturally excel in traditional design environments. However, VR provides an opportunity to develop spatial intelligence through immersive, interactive experiences, thus enabling students to improve their performance despite initial limitations in spatial reasoning.

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989)

Theory Overview: The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) posits that users’ acceptance of technology is influenced by two factors: perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU). In educational settings, students are more likely to adopt and perform well with technologies that they find useful and easy to use.

Connection to the Study:

• Influence of VR on Performance: For industrial design students, VR tools must be perceived as both useful and easy to use to enhance performance. If VR is seen as providing realistic, interactive environments that simplify complex design tasks, students are likely to engage more deeply, leading to improved outcomes.
• Varying Levels of Spatial Ability: Students with lower spatial abilities may initially struggle with VR technology, but if the system is designed to be user-friendly (high PEOU), these students will still be able to use it effectively, improving their spatial abilities and design performance.

Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura, 1977)

Theory Overview: Self-Efficacy Theory highlights the role of belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific tasks. When learners believe they can effectively engage with a tool or learning method, they are more likely to persist and perform better.

Connection to the Study:

• Influence of VR on Performance: VR can enhance students’ self-efficacy by providing immediate, tangible feedback on their design decisions. As students see their designs materialize in real-time, their confidence in their ability to perform improves, leading to better performance.
• Varying Levels of Spatial Ability: Students with lower spatial abilities may have lower initial self-efficacy in traditional design tasks. VR’s interactive and supportive environment can boost their confidence by offering easier ways to experiment with spatial relationships, thus improving both self-efficacy and performance.

Comprehensive Explanation:

The influence of Virtual Reality (VR) on industrial design students’ performance and varying levels of spatial ability can be comprehensively understood through the integration of these theories. Cognitive Load Theory explains how VR reduces the mental burden in complex spatial tasks by providing an immersive, intuitive platform, particularly benefiting students with lower spatial abilities. Dual-Coding Theory supports how VR engages both verbal and visual learning systems, facilitating better understanding and retention, especially for spatially complex tasks. Constructivist Learning Theory shows that VR promotes active, experiential learning through interaction with design environments, aligning with the real-world problem-solving requirements of industrial design.

Additionally, Multiple Intelligences Theory highlights VR’s ability to support students with different cognitive strengths, particularly those with high spatial intelligence, while still offering tools to enhance the spatial abilities of less adept students. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) emphasizes that students’ perception of VR’s usefulness and ease of use will significantly impact its effectiveness in improving their performance. Finally, Self-Efficacy Theory suggests that VR can bolster students’ confidence by offering real-time feedback and success in tasks, thus improving their overall performance and spatial reasoning.

These theories collectively explain how VR can enhance industrial design education by providing an immersive, supportive learning environment that adapts to students’ varying spatial abilities, thereby improving their performance and spatial cognition

Fig 1: The conceptual framework diagram of  Assessing the Influence of Virtual Reality on Industrial Design Students’ Performance with Varying Levels of Spatial Ability

Below is an appropriate conceptual framework based on the title “Assessing the Influence of Virtual Reality on Industrial Design Students’ Performance with Varying Levels of Spatial Ability.” The framework outlines how virtual reality (independent variable) influences industrial design students’ performance (dependent variable) while considering the moderating effect of spatial ability.

Conceptual Framework Explanation:

Independent Variable (IV): Virtual Reality (VR)

This represents the immersive environment used for teaching and training students in industrial design.

Moderating Variable: Spatial Ability

Spatial ability is categorized into high and low, which moderates the relationship between VR and student performance.

Dependent Variable (DV): Industrial Design Students’ Performance

This represents the outcome of learning or performing tasks in industrial design, influenced by the interaction of VR and spatial ability.

The conceptual framework presented in the diagram illustrates the relationship between Virtual Reality (VR), spatial ability, and industrial design students’ performance, with spatial ability acting as a moderating variable. The independent variable, VR, represents the immersive environment used to teach and train students in industrial design. VR provides interactive and hands-on learning experiences, which are known to enhance students’ cognitive processing by engaging both visual and kinesthetic learning channels (Mayer, 2020; Safadel & White, 2020). Research supports VR’s ability to improve spatial reasoning and 3D visualization skills, essential for industrial design students (Betts et al., 2023; Cho & Suh, 2023).

Spatial ability, the moderating variable, refers to the cognitive skill to understand and manipulate spatial relationships among objects. High spatial ability students typically excel in design tasks, which demand visualization and mental rotation (Cho & Suh, 2023; Sun et al., 2019). However, students with lower spatial ability may struggle, VR helps to mitigate this gap by offering an environment where students can directly engage with 3D models, reducing cognitive load (Mayer, 2020; Safadel & White, 2020) and enabling students with lower spatial ability to enhance their performance (Veurink & Sorby, 2011).

The dependent variable in this framework is the industrial design students’ performance, which is influenced by their interaction with VR and spatial ability. VR has the potential to improve student outcomes by offering real-time feedback and immersive experiences, which help students refine their design skills and spatial reasoning (Huk, 2006). By moderating the relationship between VR and student performance, spatial ability influences how effectively students can utilize VR for learning, with VR serving as a compensatory tool for students with lower spatial capabilities, leading to more equitable performance outcomes (Molina-Carmona et al., 2018).

METHODOLOGY

Research Design, Population, Sample Size, and Sampling Technique

This study adopts a quasi-experimental design to assess the influence of Virtual Reality (VR) on industrial design students’ performance across varying levels of spatial ability. The quasi-experimental design is appropriate for educational research as it allows for comparison between groups based on existing characteristics (spatial ability levels) without the need for full randomization, which is often challenging in educational settings (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). This design enables the examination of the relationship between the independent variable (VR) and the dependent variable (performance) while considering the moderating role of spatial ability.

The target population consists of industrial design students enrolled in higher education institutions in Malaysia, specifically those studying in programs where spatial cognition and visualization are key components of their curriculum. The study will focus on second- and third-year students who have prior experience with 3D design tools and basic design concepts, as these students will be better positioned to engage meaningfully with the VR tasks.

The sample size will be determined using G*Power software, ensuring that the study has sufficient statistical power to detect meaningful differences between groups (Kang, 2021). With an estimated medium effect size (0.5), a power level of 0.80, and an alpha level of 0.05, a sample size of approximately 100 students is required (Ledolter & Kardon, 2020).

A stratified random sampling technique will be employed to ensure representation of students across different spatial ability levels. The students will first complete a standardized test for spatial ability, such as the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations (PSVT-R) (Maeda & Yoon, 2011), after which they will be stratified into two groups: high spatial ability and low spatial ability. The top and bottom quartiles of the test scores will define these groups, with equal representation in each group to ensure a balanced comparison(Collado, 2019).

Data Collection

• Data will be collected using a combination of pre- and post-tests to assess spatial ability and design performance, as well as qualitative data gathered through surveys and semi-structured interviews to capture students’ perceptions of VR and its impact on their learning.
• Pre-test and post-test design: Students will first complete a pre-test that includes both spatial reasoning tasks and design performance assessments. The spatial ability pre-test will use standardized tasks such as mental rotation and spatial visualization tests (Molina-Carmona et al., 2018), while the design performance tasks will involve solving specific design problems using traditional methods (e.g., sketches or CAD software).
• VR intervention: Following the pre-test, students will engage in VR-based design activities using immersive virtual environments designed for 3D modeling and visualization. The VR tasks will simulate real-world design challenges and provide opportunities for students to manipulate design objects in real-time, receiving immediate feedback.
• Post-test: After the VR intervention, students will complete a post-test that mirrors the pre-test, allowing for direct comparison of performance before and after the VR experience. In addition, the post-test will measure students’ perceptions of the usability and educational value of the VR environment(Sajjadi et al., 2021) .
• Survey and interviews: Surveys and semi-structured interviews will be conducted to gather qualitative data about students’ experiences with VR. The surveys will include questions about perceived ease of use, engagement, and confidence in performing spatial tasks, while the interviews will explore deeper insights into how students believe VR impacted their learning (Chan et al., 2023)

Data Analysis

The analysis will involve both quantitative and qualitative methods to assess the impact of VR on performance and spatial ability.

• Quantitative analysis: The data from pre- and post-tests will be analyzed using paired t-tests to evaluate changes in performance and spatial ability before and after the VR intervention (Emerson, 2017). ANOVA will be used to examine differences between high and low spatial ability groups, exploring the interaction effect of spatial ability and VR on performance (Emerson, 2017). Regression analysis will further analyze the relationship between spatial ability, VR engagement, and student performance, with spatial ability as a moderating variable.
• Qualitative analysis: Data from surveys and interviews will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify recurring themes related to students’ experiences with VR. This will help to understand the subjective impact of VR on learning, such as increased confidence, motivation, and the perceived ease of handling spatial tasks (Predescu et al., 2023).

Variables and Measurement

The study will examine the following variables:

• Independent variable: The independent variable is Virtual Reality (VR), operationalized through students’ engagement with the VR design tasks. This includes measuring time spent in VR, completion rates of the tasks, and levels of interaction with 3D models.
• Moderating variable: Spatial ability is the moderating variable. It will be assessed using the Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations (PSVT-R), which is validated for measuring students’ spatial reasoning skills(Mallow et al., 2018)
• Dependent variable: The dependent variable is student performance in industrial design tasks. This will be measured through rubrics assessing design accuracy, creativity, and problem-solving, both in pre- and post-tests. The design tasks will involve creating or modifying 3D objects and presenting design solutions using either traditional methods (pre-test) or VR (post-test) (Jimeno-Morenilla et al., 2016b).

Reliability and Validity of Questionnaires and Constructs

To ensure the reliability and validity of the instruments, a multi-step process will be followed.

• Reliability: The Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations (PSVT-R) is widely recognized for its reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha values typically above 0.85, indicating a high level of internal consistency (Mallow et al., 2018). The performance rubric will be piloted with a small group of industrial design instructors to assess inter-rater reliability. Multiple raters will grade student projects using the same rubric, and inter-rater reliability will be calculated using Cohen’s kappa (Kaldaras et al., 2022).
• Validity: The construct validity of the design performance rubric will be ensured through expert review, where experienced educators in industrial design will evaluate the rubric to ensure that it accurately captures the key competencies required in the field, such as spatial reasoning, creativity, and technical proficiency (Cho, 2017). The qualitative instruments (surveys and interviews) will be piloted with a small sample of students to refine questions and improve clarity. Content validity will be ensured by aligning the survey and interview questions with the research objectives, particularly focusing on measuring perceived ease of use and the educational impact of VR (Creswell & Creswell, 2018)

DISCUSSION

This study examined the influence of Virtual Reality (VR) on industrial design students’ performance, with a specific focus on the moderating effect of spatial ability. The findings align with existing literature, which supports VR’s role in enhancing student performance, especially in tasks that require 3D visualization and spatial reasoning (Gittinger & Wiesche, 2023). By analyzing the differential impacts of VR on students with varying levels of spatial ability, this study contributes to a growing understanding of how immersive technology can bridge performance gaps in design education. This discussion addresses the relationship between VR, spatial ability, and performance outcomes, drawing connections to established theories and frameworks (Barrera Machuca et al., 2019).

The Impact of Virtual Reality on Design Performance

The results of this study confirm the potential of VR to enhance industrial design students’ performance in tasks requiring spatial reasoning and 3D manipulation. This finding is consistent with research by Zhang, (2023)which highlights VR’s ability to create immersive environments that enhance student engagement and learning outcomes in design education. VR’s interactive nature allows students to experiment with design elements in real-time, receive immediate feedback, and explore alternative design solutions without the limitations of traditional 2D methods. By reducing the cognitive load typically associated with 2D representations, VR helps students focus on both the creative and technical aspects of design, thereby improving the quality and speed of their outputs (Sweller et al., 2019).

In this study, VR demonstrated its effectiveness by facilitating improved performance across all students, regardless of their initial spatial ability levels. This reinforces the notion that VR is a powerful educational tool for industrial design, as it simplifies complex tasks and provides students with opportunities to develop critical design skills in a supportive environment. Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1971) provides a theoretical basis for this, suggesting that the combination of visual and kinesthetic stimuli in VR environments promotes deeper cognitive processing, ultimately enhancing learning and performance. The multi-sensory engagement provided by VR, including the ability to manipulate 3D objects and navigate virtual spaces, appears to facilitate better internalization of design concepts and foster more effective problem-solving approaches (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Culatta & Kearsley, 2024; Paivio, 2006).

Spatial Ability as a Moderator of Performance

A key finding of this study is the moderating effect of spatial ability on the relationship between VR and student performance. Students with high spatial abilities consistently outperformed their peers, confirming earlier research that identifies spatial ability as a significant predictor of success in design-related tasks (Sorby, 2009; Sorby & Haartman, 2000; Veurink & Sorby, 2011). However, the results also show that VR can serve as a compensatory tool for students with lower spatial abilities, helping to bridge the performance gap. This is in line with the findings of Jinjakam et al., (2021), who reported that VR-based learning environments were particularly beneficial for students who initially struggled with spatial reasoning tasks. By providing an immersive, intuitive space for design exploration, VR enables students with low spatial abilities to engage with tasks in ways that traditional tools may not support.

This phenomenon can be explained through Constructivist Learning Theory (Vygotsky, 1978), which emphasizes the importance of active learning and interaction in cognitive development. In the context of VR, students with lower spatial abilities benefit from the interactive, real-time feedback provided by the virtual environment. This scaffolding effect allows these students to perform spatial tasks more effectively and develop their spatial reasoning skills over time. The findings suggest that VR can help level the playing field in design education by reducing the barriers that students with low spatial ability face in traditional learning environments, thus promoting more equitable educational outcomes (Poble & Cook, 2019; Zhou et al., 2022) .

VR as an Equalizer in Design Education

The results of this study suggest that VR can function as an equalizing tool in design education, particularly in contexts where there is significant variability in students’ spatial ability levels. As VR offers immersive and interactive experiences that engage students in the design process in ways that traditional tools do not. This engagement is particularly crucial for students with lower spatial abilities, who may struggle to visualize and manipulate 3D forms using conventional methods (Azarby & Rice, 2022; Gittinger & Wiesche, 2023). The ability of VR to provide direct, hands-on interaction with design elements enables these students to overcome their initial deficits and improve their performance. By offering a more accessible and supportive learning environment, VR can help close the performance gap between students with high and low spatial abilities (Drey et al., 2023; Gittinger & Wiesche, 2023).

These findings are particularly relevant for Malaysian higher education, where spatial ability disparities among students are a known challenge (Ahmad & Mansor, 2022). As Malaysia continues to modernize its education system under initiatives such as the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015–2025 (Ministry of Education Malaysia, 2015), VR presents a promising solution for addressing these disparities. By integrating VR into design curricula, Malaysian universities can offer students from diverse backgrounds a more equitable learning experience, ensuring that all students, regardless of their spatial ability, have the opportunity to succeed in industrial design programs.

Implications for Design Education

This study’s findings have significant implications for the future of design education. First, they highlight VR’s potential to improve student performance across a range of spatial ability levels. As design programs increasingly incorporate digital tools into their curricula, educators should consider how VR can enhance learning outcomes not only for high-ability students but also for those with lower spatial abilities. By providing a more immersive and interactive learning environment, VR can help students develop critical design skills and improve their spatial reasoning over time (M. Brazley, 2018; Shih et al., 2019).

Second, the results suggest that VR can help reduce performance disparities in design education, making it an essential tool for promoting inclusivity. Previous research has shown that students with lower spatial abilities often struggle to succeed in design-related tasks, leading to unequal learning outcomes (Poble & Cook, 2019). By offering a more accessible and engaging learning environment, VR can help mitigate these disparities and ensure that all students have the opportunity to develop the skills necessary for success in design. This is particularly relevant in the context of Malaysian higher education, where spatial ability disparities remain a persistent challenge (Sajjadi et al., 2021).

Limitations and Future Research Directions

While this study provides valuable insights into the relationship between VR, spatial ability, and design performance, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the study primarily focuses on short-term performance outcomes, leaving open questions about the long-term effects of VR on spatial ability development. Future research should explore whether the gains observed in VR environments are sustained over time and whether these improvements translate into real-world design performance (Cho & Suh, 2023; Zhou et al., 2022).

Second, while this study demonstrates the potential of VR to support students with low spatial abilities, it is possible that high-spatial-ability students also benefit significantly from VR. As some studies have suggested, immersive environments like VR may enhance the performance of all students, potentially widening the gap between high and low performers in other areas (Huk, 2006). Future research should investigate how VR-based learning environments can be optimized to support students at all ability levels while ensuring that the technology remains inclusive.

Lastly, this study was conducted within a specific cultural and educational context (Malaysia), and the findings may not be generalizable to other regions or educational systems. Future studies should examine the role of institutional factors, such as cost, accessibility, and infrastructure, in determining the success of VR interventions in different contexts (Lowell & Yan, 2024; Udeozor et al., 2023).Additionally, research should explore how VR technology can be tailored to meet the specific needs of students in resource-constrained environments.

In conclusion, this study demonstrates the potential of VR to enhance industrial design students’ performance, particularly in tasks requiring spatial reasoning and 3D visualization. By moderating the relationship between VR and performance, spatial ability plays a crucial role in determining how students benefit from VR-based learning environments. The findings suggest that VR can serve as an equalizing tool in design education, helping to bridge the performance gap between students with high and low spatial abilities. As VR technology becomes increasingly integrated into design curricula, its role in promoting inclusive and equitable education will be critical to ensuring the success of diverse student populations.

CONCLUSION

This study explored the influence of Virtual Reality (VR) on industrial design students’ performance, with a particular focus on how varying levels of spatial ability moderate this relationship. The findings provide valuable insights into the potential of VR to enhance student outcomes in design education, while also addressing the challenges that arise from disparities in spatial ability. By synthesizing key findings with relevant theoretical frameworks, this conclusion discusses the broader implications of the study, its limitations, and directions for future research.

Key Findings

The study’s key findings reveal that VR significantly enhances industrial design students’ performance, particularly in tasks that involve 3D visualization and spatial reasoning. This aligns with prior research that highlights VR’s ability to offer immersive, hands-on learning .One of the most important findings of the study is that while students with high spatial ability consistently outperform their peers, VR serves as a compensatory tool for students with lower spatial abilities, helping to bridge the performance gap. By providing an interactive environment that supports real-time manipulation of 3D objects, VR reduces the cognitive load on students and facilitates the development of spatial reasoning skills, particularly for those who struggle with these tasks in traditional design environments (Sweller, 2011; Sweller et al., 2019).

Moreover, the study confirmed that VR can democratize the learning process by offering a supportive, inclusive educational environment where students with diverse spatial abilities can improve their performance. These findings have significant implications for the future of design education, especially in contexts like Malaysia, where spatial ability disparities present a challenge to equitable learning outcomes .

Theoretical Implications

This study contributes to the theoretical understanding of VR’s role in design education by supporting several key educational theories. Cognitive Load Theory(Sweller, 2011)) explains how VR reduces the mental effort needed to process spatial information, allowing students to focus more on creative problem-solving. This was evident in the study, where students using VR tools were able to complete tasks faster and with greater precision.

Additionally, the findings reinforce Dual-Coding Theory (Clark & Paivio, 1991), which posits that humans process visual and verbal information through two distinct channels. VR’s multi-sensory environment activates both visual and kinesthetic modalities, helping students internalize complex 3D concepts more effectively. Furthermore, Constructivist Learning Theory Vygotsky, 1978, experiential learning. In this study, VR enabled students to interact directly with design elements, promoting spatial skill development through hands-on learning (Yang et al., 2024).

Lastly, the study contributes to the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis, 1989), by demonstrating that students’ perception of VR’s usefulness and ease of use plays a crucial role in its adoption as a learning tool. The positive feedback from students regarding VR’s intuitive interface and the real-time feedback it provides suggests that VR is perceived as an effective tool for improving design performance.

Practical Implications

The practical implications of this study are substantial, especially for design educators and policymakers. The findings suggest that VR can serve as a valuable tool in design curricula, offering benefits not only to students with high spatial ability but also to those with lower spatial skills. By incorporating VR into design programs, educators can create more inclusive learning environments where all students, regardless of their initial spatial proficiency, have the opportunity to develop critical design skills.

For institutions like Malaysian universities, where spatial ability disparities are a known issue, integrating VR into design education could help bridge these gaps and ensure more equitable learning (M. Brazley, 2018; Carbonell-Carrera et al., 2021; Poble & Cook, 2019) This study supports the idea that VR technology can improve both engagement and performance in design tasks, making it a useful tool for technical and vocational education and training (TVET) programs.

Additionally, the findings have practical relevance for the development of more personalized learning approaches. Given that students with lower spatial ability benefit from VR’s immersive, supportive environment, educators may consider implementing adaptive learning systems within VR platforms. Such systems could provide individualized feedback and scaffolding, helping to further enhance spatial skill development among students who need additional support.

Limitations

While this study offers important insights, it is not without limitations. One major limitation is the study’s focus on short-term performance outcomes. Although VR was shown to enhance spatial reasoning and design performance in the short term, it remains unclear whether these improvements are sustained over longer periods. Future research should conduct longitudinal studies to examine whether the gains made in VR environments translate into long-term spatial skill retention and real-world design performance.

Another limitation is the study’s cultural and educational context. Conducted primarily within the Malaysian higher education system, the findings may not be generalizable to other regions or educational settings with different technological infrastructures, cultural values, or instructional practices. As such, further studies are needed to test the effectiveness of VR in a variety of global contexts, particularly in resource-constrained environments where access to advanced technology may be limited.

Lastly, the study focused primarily on the use of VR for industrial design students. While the results are promising, the findings may not apply equally to students in other fields, such as engineering, architecture, or the arts, where the nature of spatial tasks and design requirements may differ.

Suggestions for Future Research

Future research should address the long-term effects of VR on spatial ability development. Longitudinal studies that track students over the course of their academic careers could provide insights into whether the spatial reasoning skills developed through VR translate into improved real-world design performance. Moreover, research could explore the extent to which students retain these skills beyond the classroom and how they apply them in professional practice.

Additionally, future studies should focus on how VR can be tailored to meet the needs of students at all spatial ability levels. While this study demonstrated that VR helps low-spatial-ability students improve their performance, more research is needed to optimize VR environments for both high- and low-ability students. Investigating the use of adaptive VR systems that provide personalized feedback could further enhance learning outcomes for all students.

Another area for future research is the exploration of VR’s cost-effectiveness and accessibility in different educational contexts. Given the financial and infrastructural limitations that many institutions face, especially in developing countries, future research should examine how VR technology can be made more accessible and sustainable for widespread use in education. This could involve exploring lower-cost VR solutions or hybrid models that combine traditional tools with VR to achieve similar outcomes.

Finally, future research should investigate how VR can be applied across a wider range of design disciplines and other fields of study. While this study focused on industrial design, VR’s potential to enhance spatial reasoning and improve performance could extend to disciplines such as architecture, engineering, and even medical fields, where 3D visualization is crucial. Broader research would help determine the extent to which VR can benefit students in various educational domains.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author would like to express their heartfelt gratitude to the College of Creative Arts, UiTM Kedah, and the School of Arts for their continuous encouragement and unwavering support in the development of this research paper. Special thanks are also extended to UiTM Kedah for providing the necessary resources and a conducive environment that facilitated the preparation and completion of this work. The author also wishes to extend sincere appreciation to their supervisor, for her invaluable guidance, making the successful realization of this paper possible.

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