Autonomy of Minangkabau Adolescents: The Role of Motherhood and Mamak in Building an Independent Generation

Autonomy of Minangkabau Adolescents: The Role of Motherhood and Mamak in Building an Independent Generation

Annisa Ikhwanus, Dwi Hastuti, Melly Latifah

Family Science and Child Development Studies, Department of Human Ecology, IPB University, Jl. Raya Dramaga, Babakan, Bogor, West Java, 16680, Indonesia

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8110148

Received: 05 November 2024; Accepted: 09 November 2024; Published: 11 December 2024

ABSTRACT

Autonomy is a crucial developmental challenge in adolescence, especially as it is closely related to adolescents’ ability to develop individual autonomy and form their own identity. Adolescents who are not autonomy may experience various consequences that can affect their personal and social development. The main objective of this study is to analyze the influence maternal parenting style, mamak (uncle/ mother’s brother) parenting style, mother-adolescent attachment, and moral character parenting on the autonomy of ethnic Minangkabau adolescents. This study used an explanatory design by utilizing questionnaires to collect data in selected schools in Lintau Buo District, West Sumatra in March-May 2024. Participant were selected based on non–probability sampling, namely purposive sampling with a total of 221 respondents. The collected data were processed with reliability test, validity test, and structural relationship model (SEM). Parenting style, attachment and moral character parenting have a direct effect on adolescent autonomy.

Keywords: adolescents, attachment, autonomy, parenting, moral character parenting

INTRODUCTION

Adolescent Development

The adolescent period is a critical stage in human development. At the age of 12 to 15, adolescents are at the beginning of puberty that affects various aspects of their lives, including physical changes such as body growth, hormones, and cognitive and emotional development. Physical development in adolescents refers to the changes that occur in the body, brain, sensory capacity, and motor skills (Santrock, 2019). In terms of cognitive development, adolescents begin to have the ability to think abstractly and develop more complex problem-solving abilities (Berk, 2013). Adolescents also experience emotional changes characterized by emotional fluctuations caused by hormonal changes and social pressure, so adolescents are prone to impulsive behavior or emotion-driven decision-making (Santrock, 2019). In addition to experiencing cognitive development, adolescents also experience social development by starting to develop closer relationships with peers and starting to move away from family ties, in this phase adolescents begin to try to find their own identity (Albarello et al., 2018).

Autonomy

Noom defines autonomy as the ability to guide life by setting goals, feeling confident and competent, and being able to regulate behavior well (Noom et al., 2001). Cognitive and social development experienced by adolescents is closely related to autonomy or independence. Adolescents are faced with the need to have the ability to think, feel, make decisions, and act as they want but still take responsibility for their behavior (Steinberg, 2001). Adolescent autonomy is linked to identity crisis versus role confusion, in which adolescents are faced with the task of discovering who they are and determining what role they will play in the adult world (Kroger & Marcia, 2011). Adolescents who achieve autonomy earlier and are healthier tend to have better decision-making skills, stress management, and interpersonal relationships in adulthood. Research shows that adolescent autonomy supports mature decisions and reduces dependence on others later in life (Van Petegem et al., 2012). Conversely, failure to achieve independence can lead to emotional dependence and lack of initiative in adulthood (Szwedo et al., 2017).

Parenting Style

Parenting styles are various approaches in raising children that have a significant influence on child development. One of the most recognizable models is the one developed by Diana Baumrind, which classifies the three main parenting styles that are authoritative, authoritarian and permissive. Several studies show that parenting styles have a significant impact on children’s development. One of them is parents who apply authoritative parenting styles that support the development of skills, good decision-making and emotional regulation that encourage adolescent autonomy (Ramsay 2020). Parents who adopt authoritarian parenting styles have poorer interpersonal relationships with their children, which can damage the child’s ability to form healthy peer-to-peer relationships and develop the social skills necessary for autonomy (Taylor, 2020). Meanwhile, permissive parenting styles are associated with increased externalizing behaviors and lower self-regulation, as they often fail to provide adequate limits and expectations, which are essential for developing self-discipline and autonomy (Pinquart, 2017).

Attachment

Attachment is a bond persistent affective, which is characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a particular figure, especially when a person is under stressful situations (Bowlby, 1982). Attachment is divided into two types, namely secure attachment and insecure attachment (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987). Research shows that secure maternal attachment to adolescents promotes social skills and positive adolescent outcomes, while insecure attachment, especially avoidance styles, negatively impacts these competencies (Persram & Konishi, 2023). Parent-adolescent attachment, both with mothers and fathers, has been shown to play an important role in improving adolescent autonomy (Kurniawan et al. 2022).

Moral Character Parenting

Many things affect the moral upbringing of character, some of which are the socio-cultural environment and the psychological condition of parents. The moral values received by children are greatly influenced by the social and cultural context in which they are raised. Parents from different cultural backgrounds may adopt different parenting patterns according to their norms and traditions (Coll & Pachter, 2002). Parents who encourage moral reasoning and provide autonomy support contribute to better psychosocial outcomes in adolescents. This supportive environment helps adolescents navigate their developmental challenges, fostering a sense of autonomy and moral clarity (Soenens et al. 2007)

Minangkabau Ethnic

The Minangkabau ethnic group is known for its matrilineal kinship system, which is the basis of the social structure and child-rearing. In this system, the lineage and inheritance are based on the maternal line (Brenner & Blackwood, 2001). Childcare in the Minangkabau community involves not only parents, but also extended families, especially from the mother’s side, namely the mamak (mother’s brother). Mamak is responsible for guiding and educating their nephews, especially in terms of Minangkabau customs and values (Kato, 1982).

The Objective

1. Identifying adolescent characteristics and family characteristics, parenting style, mother-adolescent attachment, and moral character parenting on adolescent autonomy in ethnic Minangkabau.
2. Analyzing the simultaneous influence between parenting style, mother-adolescent attachment, and moral character parenting on adolescent autonomy in ethnic Minangkabau.

The Hypothesis

H1 : Authoritative parenting style (mother) affects adolescent autonomy
H2 : Permissive parenting style (mother) affects adolescent autonomy
H3 : Authoritarian parenting style (mother) affects adolescent autonomy
H4 : Authoritative parenting style (mother) affects mother-adolescent attachment
H5 : Permissive parenting style (mother) affects mother-adolescent attachment
H6 : Authoritarian parenting style (mother) affects mother-adolescent attachment
H7 : Mother-adolescent attachment affects adolescent autonomy
H8 : Moral character parenting affects adolescent autonomy
H9 : Authoritative parenting style (mamak) affects adolescent autonomy
H10 : Permissive parenting style (mamak) affects adolescent autonomy
H11 : Authoritarian parenting style (mamak) has an effect on adolescent autonomy

METHOD

This study uses an explanatory type non-experimental design to test the hypothesis of the relationship between Adolescent Characteristics, Parental Characteristics, Mother’s Parenting Style and Mamak Parenting Style (mother’s uncle/brother), Mother-Adolescent Attachment, and Character Moral Parenting Towards Adolescent Autonomy in the Minangkabau Ethnicity. The method used is quantitative. The location of the research was chosen by purposive sampling, namely in Lintau Buo District, West Sumatra, Indonesia. Data was collected during March 2024.

Participants

The population in this study is adolescents with an age range of 12-15 years who have the status of junior high school and MTSN students. School selection is carried out by non-probability sampling , namely purposive sampling. Respondents are selected with certain criteria and are considered representative of the population. The questionnaire data collection process was face-to-face and successfully obtained as many as 221 respondents from 3 SMPN and 1 MTSN in Lintau Buo District, Tanah Datar Regency, West Sumatra.

Measurement

In this study, the type of data collected consists of primary data. The primary data collected were:

1. Characteristics of adolescents consisting of age, gender.
2. Family characteristics consisting of parental age, parental education, parental employment, family size, and family type.
3. Mother’s and Mamak’s (uncle’s) Parenting Styles are referred to and modified from the parenting style questionnaire which consists of 27 statements each (Rahmawati et al., 2014). Consisting of mother’s authoritative parenting style (reliability 0.94 and validity 0.69), mother’s authoritarian parenting style (reliability 0.94 and validity 0.68), mother’s permissive parenting style (reliability 0.96 and validity 0.75), uncle’s authoritative parenting style (reliability 0.96 and validity 0.74), uncle’s authoritarian parenting style (reliability 0.97 and validity 0.79), uncle’s permissive parenting style (reliability 0.97 and validity 0.79)
4. Mother-Adolescent Attachment is referred to from the Parent-Child Attachment (Adolescent) questionnaire which consists of 13 statements (Situmorang et al., 2016). Reliability value of 0.97 and validity of 0.69.
5. Character Moral Parenting is referred to and modified from the National Strategy Research questionnaire consisting of 10 statements (Hastuti et al., 2012). Reliability value of 0.97 and validity of 0.80.
6. Adolescent Autonomy is referred to and modified from Adolescent Autonomy Questionnaire which consists of 15 statements (Noom et al., 2001). Reliability value of 0.97 and validity of 0.74.

Analysis

The data that has been collected is then processed through the process of entering data through Microsoft Office Excel, then the data is given a score according to the provisions on each instrument. Furthermore, to see the relationship and influence between variables, the data is processed using Smart-PLS.

FINDINGS

Characteristics of Adolescents

The adolescents involved in this study amounted to 221 people, which were divided into 88 adolescent boys (39.8%) and 133 adolescent girls (60.1%). The average age of adolescents involved in this study was 14.28 years (SD=0.78; min–max = 12–15 years).

Table 1. Distribution of Adolescent Characteristics

Family Characteristics

Based on the results of the distribution of family characteristics, 74.7% of the father’s age is categorized as middle adulthood (41–60 years old). 59.4% of the mother’s age is categorized as middle adult. The largest proportion of fathers and mothers’ education is high school fathers (43.9%) and mothers (40.3%). The largest proportion of fathers’ jobs are farmers 55.2% and traders/entrepreneurs 24.9% and mothers as housewives (57.5%) and traders/entrepreneurs (22.6%). 40.3% of adolescents were from large families (≥8 people), 38.5% from small families (≤4 people) and 21.3% from medium families (5–7 people). 61.5% of adolescents were from nuclear families and 38.5% were from large families.

Table 2. Distribution of Family Characteristics

The Influence of Mother’s Parenting Style, Mamak’s Parenting Style, Mother-Adolescent Attachment, and Character Moral Parenting on Adolescent Autonomy
Based on the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) in Figure 1, it is known that 83% of adolescents’ autonomy is influenced by variables such as mother’s parenting style, mother-adolescent parenting style, mother-adolescent attachment, and character moral parenting. Meanwhile, in the path coefficient, character moral upbringing contributed the greatest influence on the autonomy of Minangkabau ethnic adolescents compared to other variables, which was 0.279. Meanwhile, the authoritative parenting style of mothers and uncles has a positive effect on autonomy, which means that mothers and uncles who apply authoritative parenting styles will increase the autonomy of adolescents, while authoritarian and permissive parenting styles applied by mothers and uncles have an effect on adolescent autonomy, which means that the parenting style will reduce adolescent autonomy. Meanwhile, attachment and moral upbringing of character have a positive effect on autonomy, which means that the higher the level of attachment and moral upbringing of maternal character, the higher the autonomy of adolescents.

Figure 1. SEM algorithm consists of Path Coefficient Values

Description: GPI OTR = Authoritarian Parenting Style – Mother, GPI PR = Permissive Parenting Style – Mother, GPI OTF = Authoritative Parenting Style – Mother, GPM OTR = Authoritarian Parenting Style – Mamak, GPM PR = Permissive Parenting Style – Mamak, GPM OTF = Authoritative Parenting Style – Mamak, KLK = Maternal Attachment – Adolescent, KEM = Adolescent Autonomy

The total influence of maternal authoritative parenting style on attachment (0.68) and autonomy (0.42) indicates that maternal authoritative parenting style is the most important influence on the high and low autonomy of adolescents when compared to other variables in this study.

Table 3 Test Results of the Influence of Mother’s Parenting Style, Mamak’s Parenting Style, Attachment, Character Moral Parenting on Adolescent Autonomy (n=221)

DISCUSSION

Based on the influence test, the values of significance, magnitude and direction of influence both directly and indirectly, and the total influence presented in Figure 1 and Table 3 were obtained that the parenting styles of both mothers and mothers both contributed to the autonomy of adolescents in the Minangkabau ethnicity. The authoritative parenting style of mothers and mothers has a significant positive effect on the autonomy of adolescents with. These results are in line with previous research that The majority of adolescents who receive an authoritative parenting style show a significant level of autonomy (Pabendan et al., 2023). Authoritative parenting styles support the development of skills, good decision-making and emotional regulation by encouraging (Ramsay, 2020).

Permissive and authoritarian parenting styles, both mothers and mothers, have a significant negative effect on adolescent autonomy. Previous research has revealed that permissive parenting styles are often associated with low levels of autonomy due to a lack of clear boundaries and supervision that can lead to adolescents being less structured and accountable (Francis & Roemhild, 2022). The meta-analysis study also revealed that permissive parenting styles are associated with increased externalization problems, such as aggressive behavior and lack of self-control, which can hinder adolescents’ autonomy (Pinquart, 2017). Meanwhile, authoritarian parenting styles reduce the creativity and ability of adolescents to cope with pressure. This style, which prioritizes strict control, tends to limit adolescents’ freedom of thought and initiative, thus reducing their motivation to achieve goals independently (Francis & Roemhild, 2022; And, 2022).
Mother-adolescent attachment has a significant positive effect on autonomy well as being a mediator between parenting styles and adolescent autonomy. This is in line with previous research that a parenting style that is full of emotional support from parents increases the quality of attachment with adolescents, which contributes to the formation of adolescents’ sense of autonomy or independence (Nunes et al., 2022). Based on secure attachment, a child has the ability to explore his or her world. A positive relationship background with parents facilitates the development of autonomy in adolescence. Previous research has also revealed that attachment supports the development of adolescent autonomy, as children with secure attachment are more likely to develop self-confidence and the ability to self-regulate (Koehn & Kerns, 2018).

Moral Character Parenting has a significant positive effect on adolescents’ autonomy. Interaction between mothers and children, which involves the introduction and teaching of self-concepts, the formation of good values, and ethics in dealing with others is very important to build adolescent autonomy. Previous research has also stated that parenting patterns that foster moral character can support the development of autonomy by encouraging responsible decision-making and self-regulation (Zhou et al., 2021).

CONCLUSION

Based on the descriptive test, the adolescents involved in this study consisted of 221 people divided into 88 boys (39.8%) and girls (60.1%) with an average age of 14 years, the largest proportion of fathers and mothers’ education was high school, more than half of fathers’ jobs were farmers (55.2%) and more than half of mothers’ jobs were housewives. Almost half of the respondents were categorized as extended families (≥8 people) family members (40.3%). More than half of adolescents live in nuclear families (61.5%)

The structural model in this study supports the entire hypothesis. The authoritative, permissive and authoritarian parenting style of mothers and mothers has a direct effect on the autonomy of adolescents. In addition, mother-adolescent attachment also has a direct effect on adolescent autonomy. The results also support attachment as a mediator for mothers’ parenting styles towards autonomy. The authoritative parenting style of the mother will increase the attachment of the mother and adolescent which will then increase the autonomy of the adolescent, and conversely the permissive and authoritarian parenting style of the mother will reduce the attachment of the mother and the adolescent which will then decrease the level of autonomy of the adolescent.

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