Boko Haram Terrorism and Development Challenges in the Northeastern Nigeria

Boko Haram Terrorism and Development Challenges in the Northeastern Nigeria

Ibrahim Alkali, Dr. Bukar Jmari

Department of Sociology, Yobe State University, Damaturu

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2023.7012150

Received: 11 December 2023; Revised: 16 December 2023; Accepted: 20 December 2023; Published: 21 January 2024

ABSTRACT

The study examines the challenges that hinder development in the Northeast, of Nigeria as a result of the activities of the Boko Haram insurgency. Mixed methods techniques of data collection were adopted to elicit both quantitative and qualitative data using (structured questionnaires) and qualitative (in-depth interviews. A total of 470 respondents were sampled using the Morgan and Krejcie (1970) sample size table. The quantitative data obtained were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics while Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was employed for the analysis of the qualitative data. The study found that the Boko Haram violence had adversely affected the development and commercial activities of the areas studied. The destruction of markets, and government buildings, killings and abductions of business owners led to dire developmental challenges. Also, the study found that there was mismanagement of relief materials/assistance for the affected persons, lack of access to food, healthcare services and hygienic facilities in the affected communities and recurrent attacks by the Boko Haram members have hampered any development to take place in the study areas. This study suggests that the reopening of markets, provision of security, pro-poor social investment programs, introduction of surveillance technology, protection of farmers and exploration of natural resources endowed in the areas will rejuvenate the economic and social fortunes of the areas surveyed in this study.

Keywords: Boko Haram, Insecurity, Interpretive Phenomenology, Development, Structural Anomie Theory, Socioeconomic.

INTRODUCTION

It is a common notion that humans are living in a constant state of conflict in different parts of the world. Although the controlling group can force the other members to obey rules, it is not certain that the obedience is to the willingness of the controlled group. The ability to coerce is real, but the amount of this force is subject to limitation (White, 2002). Some of the subjects might obey and others could resent the power of the superiors. In other words, even within a peaceful social group, conflict exists. However, the level of the conflict varies from interpersonal feuds or duets to international warfare, such as the First and Second World Wars. Terrorism lies somewhere between these two extremes because it is rebellious or guerilla warfare, whereby a group of rebels confront a state or a country (Rosenau, 2007).

Because of the consequences of terrorism, the phenomenon is worth labelling as a social problem, upon which collective social action should be taken to address its cause(s) and consequences. The threatening fact about any insurgent group is the method it uses to further its cause. Bennett & Hess (2007), discussed the variety of techniques used by terrorists including, arson, the use of explosives and bombs, and weapons of mass destruction-which can take the form of biological, chemical, or nuclear agents.  According to White (2002), the technology used by the insurgent groups, the financial buoyancy through transnational support and the manipulation of audience via media form the bases for their force multiplier to push insurgency campaigns forward and to aid insurgent groups in recruiting more followers. The availability of deadly weapons which have the capacity and potency to destroy the lives of many per single attack makes even asymmetrical warfare end in virtually equal damages. This application of sophisticated weapons and convenient exploitation of information and communication technology (ICT) in wars between states and between state and violent organisations, such as Boko Haram, is what Hammes (Barno 2006: 17) called “netwar”. Simply put, the consequence of violent conflict at any level, including the current Boko Haram terrorism, is usually fatal.

As of 2023, Boko Haram are in control of some parts of Borno State. Geographically, Boko Haram’s location is in the Northeastern part of Nigeria, primarily in three states: Borno, Yobe and Adamawa States. From an ethnic point of view, Boko Haram’s present base is amongst the Kanuri people, who are not confined by Nigeria’s borders, but spill over into northern Cameroon and western Chad, and historically are the heirs to the pre-modern Sultanate of Borno (Cook, 2018).

Therefore, the terrorist activities of Boko Haram caused serious development challenges to the northeastern region even when the territory fell under the control of the Nigerian military. Boko Haram then resumed its violent existence and intensified its terrorism which led to the destruction of markets, government properties, human lives and public valuable properties in the northeastern region. Given this, the present study will investigate the impact of Boko Haram terrorism on the development and challenges in northeastern Nigeria.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are:

1. To examine the effects of Boko Haram activities on the development of the north-eastern Nigeria;
2. To examine the efforts by the government to address the developmental challenges posed by the Boko Haram activities; and
3. To suggest means for revamping the development of north-eastern Nigeria in the post-Boko Haram.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS

Development:

Discourse on the concept of development amongst its experts is contentious because the term can be approached with different interpretations, depending on the disciplinary orientation and the perspective of an author. Development is seen as a social or sociological concept, as an economic term, as well as a political phenomenon. It can also be approached from a modernisation or dependency perspective (Jamri, 2019). Dudley Seers (as cited in Jamri, 2021) conceives of development as not only involving economic growth but also conditions in which people in a country have adequate food, and jobs and the income inequality among them is greatly reduced. According to Seers, the questions to ask about a country’s development are threefold: “What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to inequality? What has been happening to unemployment?” Seers pointed out that if these three factors, including poverty, unemployment and inequality, had been greatly reduced, then there would have been progress for the affected country. In reviewing the study eight years later in 1977, Seers confirmed that he had left out something important that must now be added: ‘self-reliance’ (Augustine, 2018: 1). In generic terms, development can be defined as any important changes in the society or on one or more of the social institutions, such as economy, politics, education, economy, family science and technology, etc.

Terrorism:

According to White (2002), in his book Terrorism: An Introduction “nobody has been able to provide an exact definition of the subject [of terrorism]” (p. 3). This is because the nature of terrorism is in perpetual changes over history. In the same period, violent activity by a given group might be seen as terrorism, but be justified as a liberation if performed by another group. As a result, terrorist acts of one group can be legally justified by another group and one group’s terror is another group’s hero. The word terror comes from Terrere, which means “to tremble” in Latin. Terrorism, as defined by the United Kingdom’s Terrorism Act 2000, means the use of threats involving serious harm to a person; it affects property damage; puts a person’s life in danger (other than the person who committed this sending); poses a serious risk to the health or safety of the public or part of the public; or is actually designed to interfere with or actually disrupt an electronic system. The law further explains that the use or threat of such action must be designed to influence the government or an international organization or to intimidate the public or any part of the public and to take measures to promote another political, religious, extremism or ideology. Hassan & Mukhtar, 2017).

In line with this, Hermon (2009:7) defines the concept as “the deliberate and systematic murder, maiming, and menacing of the innocent to inspire fear for political ends”. Chaliand & Blin (2007) contends that terrorism is, by definition, opposed to the state apparatus. The nature of that opposition often defines a movement’s character. Where the state apparatus is essentially rational, the terrorist party will tend to appeal strongly to emotion. Where the state machinery operates based on realist policies and an understanding of the balance of power, the terrorist group imbues its politics with a powerful moral tone (whose code varies depending on the ideology in play) and a weak-versus-strong strategy reliant for the most part on its psychological impact on the adversary. But White (2002) and Macionis (2009) argued that terrorism can be perpetrated by a state or government. Raymond Aron had a felicitous way of getting to the heart of the matter: “A violent action is deemed terrorist when its psychological effects are disproportionate to its purely physical results” (Quoted in Chaliand & Blin, 2007:6).

With the increasing technological advancement, however, the perpetration of such violence has transcended the physical space and also become possible in the virtual or cyberspace (Jamri, 2020). This is what brought us to the era of cyber-terrorism and other internet-facilitated crimes. Yet, the consequences of terrorism either in physical or cyberspaces are the same: fatal, instilling fear or terrifying, threatening, etc.

Boko Haram Terrorism and Development Challenges in North-Eastern Nigeria

In general, insurgency has a suppressive influence on a nation’s social and economic features, and insurgent terrorism has never produced beneficial effects anywhere in the globe. In Nigeria, for example, mentioning insurgency without mentioning Boko Haram’s activities is insufficient. Odo (2015) also stated that the group’s insurgent activities became even more brutal and resulted in a lot of destruction after the group’s deputy leader, Abubakar Shekau, gained leadership. Boko Haram organized lethal attacks on civilians, government buildings, military and police facilities, schools, churches and mosques, and offices, including the United Nations Headquarters in Abuja, under Shekau’s command.

Boko Haram’s theater of operations was expanded from the northeastern states to other parts of the north as a result of these operations (Odo, 2015). The Nigerian economy has been damaged by the Boko Haram conflict (Hassan, 2014). Boko Haram is a terrorist organization that has claimed responsibility for the majority of the attacks in different sections of the country. The increased activity of the group has hampered the Nigerian business climate and rendered the country almost unsuitable to investors (Edobor, 2014). Banks in northern Nigeria, particularly in affected areas, had to adjust their opening and closing hours as part of their efforts to secure their commercial premises.

Due to the limited banking operational hours that are no longer in their favor, bank clients, particularly traders, find it extremely difficult to deposit their daily earnings in banks under this new operational arrangement. Alternatively, these vulnerable businessmen have to conceal their funds in their establishments. As a result, in addition to the frequent suicide bombings, there are an increasing number of occurrences of shop breaking, armed robberies, and burglaries in the affected communities (Ovaga, 2013). Another trend is the large migration of Southerners from the North to their Southern hometowns, with many of them running small and medium-sized businesses and working as professionals in various fields (Adebayo, 2014).

The Boko Haram terrorists had a significant detrimental effect on the northeastern region’s economic operations. Border towns that have prospered on trade with neighboring nations have also seen their business activities suffer as a result of increased cross-border traffic restrictions. Hotels, banks, and other commercial sectors have experienced considerable declines in their commercial activity (Adebayo, 2014). The escalating instability in the North, particularly that caused by Boko Haram terrorism, has had a major impact on the socioeconomic situation, with many people, including businessmen, migrating to more peaceful areas of the country. Furthermore, food costs have begun to rise astronomically as a result of the substantial decrease in food transit from the north to the south, where they (foodstuffs) are widely consumed. This is because merchants from the south believe it is perilous to travel to the north, where the products are purchased. As consequently, these form items are piled up and forfeited in the hands of farmers who rely on them as their sole source of income (Ovaga, 2013). Given these heinous consequences, contemporary Nigerian thought is replete with issues concerning insecurity, militancy, insurgency, and terrorism, as a result of their consequential links with economic, social, political, and governance activities, with cascading effects on regional and international relations (Adewumi, 2014). Corruption and terrorism are threatening every part of the Nigerian economy, making it unstable.

Along with other economic problems that have plagued Nigeria, such as the devaluation of the Naira and over-indulgence and the focus on agriculture, terrorism has destroyed investor confidence and thrown the country’s economy into recession (Edobor, 2014). The impact of terrorist activities on economic development has increased significantly in Nigeria. Therefore, it has become an issue that concerns everyone, the government and corporate bodies. The effects of violence and terrorism in Nigeria can be seen in different ways. The increase in the loss of life and property of the community is directly affected as long as the direct expenditure of reducing and solving the problems, the loss of life and the loss of life. The cost of managing and managing violent crime and terrorism in Nigeria is very high (Edobor, 2014).

Theoretical Framework

The study will be based on the social structure and the theory of Anomie to explain the relationship between Boko Haram terrorism and development challenges in the northeast of Nigeria. The theory was first associated with Durkheim, but later with Merton. The theory attempts to establish a relationship between structural constraints and anomie, and criminal behavior. Merton begins by saying that society defines success through certain goals (such as financial security) but does not always provide the means (including schooling and good jobs) to achieve these cultural expectations. Bell (2010) elaborates from the social mirror. Merton identified two important factors that dominate the importance of social studies on the relationship between destructive behavior: (1) the goals of culture, which are taken by everyone, regardless of rank and status, as a legitimate and highly desirable goal to pursue. ; and (2) ways that the social system recognizes as legitimate ways to meet culturally prescribed needs (Bell, 2010).

Therefore, the process of breaking the law depends on whether people agree with the goals of society and whether they have access to them or not. To this end, five reforms must emerge (Iwarimie-Jaja, 2003). Modes of adjustment include conformity, calculation, withdrawal, habituation, and rebellion. The first method of adjustment, equality, is not deviant because the people under it agree with the goals of the cultural policy and the agreed methods of achieving the goals. All the other four are misdemeanors or crimes. Innovation includes those people, who agree with the goals but reject the means, backsliding represents people who reject both the goals and the methods, culture for those who reject the goals but accept the methods, and rebellion is the work of those who are trying to change the whole system. Sztompka (2003) also offered the idea of ​​Merton’s system is understood as the nature of the separation between the same cultural needs for success and the diversity of opportunities for success. It is in such a situation that anomie creates these kinds of distortions.

The theory makes a significant contribution to explaining why criminal activity becomes inevitable under social systems that shape hard-earned values, which lead some people to violence, for example terrorism in Nigeria. In addition, by using Merton’s framework, insurgency is classified under insurgency because the Boko Haram group seeks to change the system from a Western democratic government to a government that is governed solely by Islamic governance.

The theory also helped in understanding the factors that underlie the formation of different terrorist groups by Nigerian youths, Boko Haram included. One cannot rule out issues like a misconstrued understanding of the authentic teaching of Islam in the involvement of the youths in the group, but as the theory showed, the socio-economic conditions of these youths are largely a factor for their involvement. Many Nigerian youths are left unemployed and uncared-for, despite some of them being graduates and others hard-working, they do not find a supportive environment to harness their potential. It is even more disturbing to find that many of the members of Boko Haram have started experiencing societal neglect since their childhood. This is evident in Almajiranci institutions (some parents’ traditional way of sending their children to learn Qur’anic lessons from a teacher living far away from the children’s town) which is common among rural Hausa families.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design:

The study adopted a descriptive research design. It described the effects of Boko Haram terrorism on the development of the study area (Northeastern Nigeria).

Population:

The study population included men and women of 18 years and above in Northeastern Nigeria. The target population of the study were representatives of businessmen, developmental experts, political and traditional leaders.

Sample Size and Sampling Technique:

The sample size for the survey is 470 respondents determined by using the Morgan and Krejcie (1970) sample size table. Out of the total sample, 450 respondents for quantitative data and 10 provided qualitative data. The sampling technique adopted is a multi-stage sampling technique. The North Eastern region was categorized into six (6) clusters (Borno, Adamawa, Gombe, Bauchi, and Taraba states). Three (3) states (Borno, Adamawa, and Yobe) were selected by using the purposive sampling method based on the gravity of the effect of the insurgents. Simple random sampling was used to select 3 (three) local governments from each of the three states and one (1) political ward from each local government. Two (2) streets were selected using SRS, which gives 18 streets. Twenty-five (25) houses were randomly selected based on the number of houses/blocks. One (1) respondent was randomly selected from every household and the questionnaire was administered.

A purposive sampling technique was adopted to sample 10 participants to elicit qualitative data. In-depth interviews (IDI) were conducted with political leaders, traditional leaders, representatives of CSOs and security agencies.

Source of Data:

The data were sourced from primary and secondary sources. The primary data were elicited using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. Hence, questionnaires and IDI guides were used as instruments for data collection during the fieldwork. The secondary data were generated from textbooks, newspapers, journal articles, magazines, conference proceedings, etc.

Method of Data Analysis:

The study has triangulated two methods to analyse the data collected. The quantitative data elicited were analyzed using one of the non-parametric statistics tools called Chi-Square using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). Qualitative data generated from IDI were analyzed using interpretative phenomenology (IPA), a technique for analyzing qualitative data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Data Analysis, Presentation and Discussion

The qualitative data was analyzed using interpretative phenomenological data analysis, and the data was presented using the descriptive approach. Although 450 questionnaires were distributed, only 385 (representing 86% recovery) were valid for analysis. The study will elaborate on the cases and responses of a cross-section of the sampled population from each cluster and stratum to avoid the repetition of similar accounts and experiences shared by the respondents during the research.

The effects of Boko Haram activities on the Development of the North-eastern Nigeria; its Challenges and Way-out.

The activities of the Boko Haram insurgents have had an impact on virtually all of the fundamental social institutions in the study area, which are the primary drivers for development in any society. The data presented below comprises an extract of responses from respondents’ perspectives on how the Boko Haram insurgency impacts human capital development in the northeast.

How the Boko Haram Insurgency affects the Human Capital, Structural and Economic Development, Agriculture, and Commercial Activities of the Northeast.

The economic destruction wrought by Boko Haram has had a ripple effect throughout the region, affecting those in the Northeast. Consequently, most communities and victims witnessed downward mobility. It was revealed that practically everyone had a similar experience based on what was observed during data collection and the opinions obtained from the sampled group. The Boko Haram insurgency has impacted the northeast and people in every aspect of daily life and left an indelible mark on its victims. A staff of the state Ministry of Youths and Social Development, Yobe state stated during the in depth-interviews that;

Boko Haram has affected virtually all aspects of our lives and daily activities. It removes trust among us as Yobe people and between the Yobe people and immigrants. Historically, Yobe is known to be hospitable to visitors; but today, people are skeptical of hosting strangers because they fear they might be members of this insurgent group. (IDI with a staff of the State Ministry of Youths and Social Development, Yobe state, 2023).

A community leader asserts that Boko Haram affects almost every aspect of the lives of the Adamawa people in the following quotation:

Boko Haram has not only harmed our traditional political and social institutions but all aspects of society are affected. When the group started its terrorist activities in Mubi, they killed and injured many. (IDI with a community leader in Mubi LGA, Adamawa state, 2023).

The insurgents took over the sociopolitical and economic activities of the community (Mubi) for almost a year. Those unable to escape or flee experienced inhumane treatment by the Boko Haram members during their reign. They killed, maimed, and raped. The community leader and many others lost relatives and subjects. It was also noted during the interview that he did not want to talk about some of the incidents he witnessed, particularly the chopping of hands, flogging, and executions by the insurgents to enforce Shariah in the community.

The study also indicates that nearly everyone and all institutional social systems in the state have been impacted by the insurgents. According to the assumptions of structural functional theories, society is a system comprised of interdependent and interrelated units. Therefore, the whole would be affected by a malfunction in one component. Every state’s social institutions have felt the impact of the Boko Haram insurgency. Some of the schools, hospitals, police stations, markets and other structures destroyed by the insurgents are still visible in these communities. However, it was observed that most non-indigenous workers had resumed work, and destroyed facilities had been rebuilt and rehabilitated by the NGOs, and state and federal governments.

Furthermore, the Boko Haram insurgency’s emergence has compelled the people of the northeast to alter these long-standing customs, resulting in the growth of stereotypes and mistrust. According to Tajfel’s (1979) social identity theory, biases toward one’s group and a resulting lack of trust in others outside it are to blame for stranger trust. In terms of in-group favouritism, people have favourable impressions of strangers but have higher expectations of treatment from those in their group than those in other groups. This higher expectation translates into a larger tendency to trust an in-group member rather than an out-group member, as in the instance of the three most affected state’s growth of distrust and scepticism. An act cannot qualify as a trusting gesture if it goes against the expectations of the trustee.

A community leader stated that:

The traders went through serious difficulties during the closure of the markets and many small business owners have lost their capital. But the security situation has improved and we are calling on the marketers to continue cooperating with the securities. We are also pleading with the government to rebuild the shops that were burnt down and assist them with capital. (IDI with a community leader in Adamawa, 2023).

A merchant stated that:

Most of us are victims and our businesses have been affected. The flow of visitors that come to buy goods here, every week from within and outside Borno State, has drastically reduced. However, due to the security improvement, most of our markets are reopened for commercial activities and the flow of visitors has improved. (IDI with a merchant in Maiduguri, 2023).

In addition, there are security forces stationed in the towns which the locals claim are not enough to protect the towns because every time Boko Haram launches an attack, they can prevail over the security forces. As a result, there is an urgent need for the state and federal governments to increase the number of soldiers stationed in these regions. Lastly, the majority of the state’s residents believe that the government should implement the strategy that is being used in the state next door (Borno state), which consists of arming vigilante groups with sophisticated weapons and creating civilian joint taskforces, to improve the state’s security situation. On the impact of the insurgents on agriculture, another respondent stated that;

Agricultural activities have partially resumed as we are not allowed to farm more than five kilometres from the town. As a result, many returnees still do not have land to farm (IDI with a farmer in Yola, 2023).

Similarly, the data gathered through the quantitative approach also supported and substantiated the above responses as indicated below;

Source: Filed Survey, 2023

Table 1: How the Boko Haram insurgency affects the Human Capital, Structural and Economic Development, Agriculture, and Commercial Activities of Northeast

The inability of the populace in most of the affected communities to farm and engage in other forms of agricultural activities has led to a loss of livelihood for many people as the majority of the people in the state are engaged in farming, as indicated in the demographic data.

Traditionally, families produce what they consume and consume what they produce. A 2018 study from Yobe State’s Ministry of Agriculture states that 33 per cent of the state’s grain harvest comes in Gujba LGA, while Gashua is responsible for 12.3 per cent of the fish harvest in northeastern Nigeria. Before the rise of Boko Haram, agriculture in these two LGAs was the primary means of support for many local households. According to Udemezue & Osegbue (2018), the primary goal of agriculture is to increase people’s material and social well-being in every society. For those who subscribe to the conservative perspective on agriculture development, the major causes of agricultural underdevelopment include disasters and insecurity, such as severe, prolonged, and widespread droughts, the onset and spread of highly infectious, destructive diseases or pests, and sudden, catastrophic floods and a lack of safety (Friedrich, 1981 as cited in Udemezue & Osegbue, 2018).

In terms of commerce, the group razed multiple school structures and murdered many students and teachers. Their operations also compelled the state government to close virtually all marketplaces in the affected local government areas. Many farmlands remain inaccessible, and some primary healthcare services remain closed in some of the most affected towns. Due to the frequent attacks, the states were forced to close several markets. Several people were killed, and many others were kidnapped during attacks. Even though people in the southern part of the country are sceptical about the region’s improved security, the markets are now open for business.

The Efforts of the Government’s Non-Governmental Organizations in Revamping Development and Addressing the Developmental Challenges Posed by the Boko Haram Activities

There were severe humanitarian crises, economic, social, and political and infrastructure under-development in the study area due to the increasing activity of the sect. This has resulted in the loss of life, the displacement of communities, and the destruction of several infrastructures. The government, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other non-state actors and institutions play critical roles in addressing the developmental challenges. As part of revamping the human capital development, below are some of the interviewees’ comments:

Our community was razed and my husband was killed by the insurgents. I and my two children were lucky to be alive.  We have been enrolled in the government conditional cash transfer program (CCT) and twenty thousand Naira (N20,000) monthly for the past 4months (IDI with a beneficiary in Damaturu, 2023).

Another respondent stated that;

The humanitarian situation and infrastructural deficit in Borno State have improved, due to the accessibility to some of the affected communities. This has made it easy for the government to rebuild those communities and humanitarian agencies to respond to the needs of internally displaced persons in terms of access to food, clean water or healthcare. (IDI with a representative of the Adamawa state government, 2023).

A respondent from the North East Development Commission’s responses on the role of the government in the condition of the IDPs stated that:

The Federal Government through the North East Development Commission (NEDC) has commenced the renovation and building of new primary and secondary schools in Potsdam, with 500 units of housing in each of the most affected states of the region. (IDI with a staff of NEDC, 2023).

Source: Field Survey, 2023

Table 2: Challenges of Development Caused by the Insurgent in the Northeast.

While the sect’s activities are still present, they are now primarily confined to the country’s northwest and north-central regions, making it clear that calm has returned to the study area. Formerly, developmental activities and humanitarian aid were primarily restricted to the state capital due to the inaccessibility of most of the affected communities. As a result, the various forms of aid offered by these humanitarian agents are helping a significant number of displaced people. Nevertheless, many people are being denied access to aid because of nepotism and partiality on the part of those responsible for producing the list of most vulnerable populations.

Source: Field Survey, 2023

Table 3: How to Address the Developmental Challenges Appropriate for Fighting Insurgency in Yobe State

About appropriate developmental strategies recommended for addressing the challenges caused by the insurgents, resulting from the above table (3) shows that the majority of the respondents precisely 29 per cent indicated community policing and participation as more appropriate in addressing the challenges, 15 percent recommend social inclusion, 10 per cent point-to harnessing the natural resources, 13 per cent indicated introduction of technology, while only 0.1 per cent recommend accountability and transparency, 31 per cent of the respondent viewed all the mentioned strategies as appropriate for addressing the challenges preventing development in the northeast.

It is clear from the above responses that the people in the study area were affected by every aspect of life. During an interaction with some of the members of the community who were not part of the interviewees, it was discovered that nearly everyone in the community had a tale to tell. Those affected directly had their homes and businesses burned down, held captive for years, sustained injuries in attacks, witnessed countless deaths, and suffered severe emotional trauma. In contrast, the lack of institutions like schools and hospitals and the disruption of family life have the most significant indirect impact on the young and the elderly. Northeast is one of the most prosperous nation’s states, and its diverse population includes members of several religions and ethnicities. The locals were famed for their open arms and acceptance of people of all faiths and backgrounds. However, the widespread presence of Boko Haram informants or spies, who usually pose as merchants, has made locals wary of trusting or hosting visitors from other states.

Sociologists like Durkheim, Merton, Radcliffe-Brown, and Parsons opined that social cohesiveness and stability could only be achieved when all the parts of society work together. Parsons compares how society functions to how the human body functions. Institutions, he argued, are like the body’s organs; they each perform a specialised function essential to the health of the whole. The operations of the Boko Haram sect have significantly impacted nearly every social institution in the research area. Structural functionalists believe that one social institution’s failure will have knock-on effects on other structures. Thus, the Boko Haram sect’s operations have touched almost all the social institutions in the studied region.

Discussion of Major Findings

This section deals with the discussion of the major findings based on the discovery of the study. Thus, the objectives of the study are as follows; to examine the effects of Boko Haram activities on the development of north-eastern Nigeria; to examine the efforts by the government to address the developmental challenges posed by the Boko Haram activities; and to provide means for revamping the development of north-eastern Nigeria in the post-Boko Haram.

The result of the study revealed that the Boko Haram insurgency has affected the human capital structural development in the study area via population displacement, a high death rate, panic, trauma, and a lack of essential social services, destruction of shops, the burning of markets, the fear of attacks by local business owners, the frequent threats and imposition of curfew, and the abductions of business people by insurgents have seriously affected the development of the three most affected state’s economy. In a joint study by the UNHCR and the International Organization for Migration (2018), it was reported that the states of Borno, Adamawa, and Yobe were identified as the worst hit, with a total number of 1.8 million people displaced and 5.8 million in need of humanitarian assistance. Emmanuel (2015) also made a similar discovery: the severe humanitarian crisis in terms of loss of life, human rights abuses, population movement and refugee crises, loss of means of livelihood, food insecurity, and absence of medical facilities and other social amenities has disrupted civic stability in the region (Northeastern Nigeria).

Similarly, Dauda (2014) found that the state’s counter-insurgency measures, such as banning motorcycles and closing some markets, have caused some households to lose their means of livelihood. Also, the massive destruction of infrastructure, and telecommunications facilities, the frequent attacks on markets and businesses, and the short business hours have caused many people to move to safer parts of the country, lowering incomes and worsening poverty (Salkida, 2012: para 10).

The research further indicates that lack of access to the affected communities, corruption, absence of accountability, fear of investment by businessmen, and general insecurity of lives and properties are the major challenges facing development in the region. According to Aro (2013), the economic repercussions of violence in Nigeria may be viewed in two ways: the effects on the state (Nigeria) and the effects on the citizens of the state (Nigerians), particularly the residents of Bauchi, Borno, Yobe, Plateau, and bordering northern states. Terrorists destroyed about 25 telecoms stations and terminals in Maiduguri, Potiskum, Bauchi, Gombe, and Yola, causing a setback to efforts to develop telecommunications in the region (The Guardian, 12 September 2012). In his assessment of the negative impact of the Boko Haram crisis on the country’s economy, Isakpa (2011) stated that “there can be no real progress in any economy that is hostage to security.”

Finally, the study results show that the government, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and other stakeholders played a vital role in addressing the challenges by providing conditional cash transfers, access to affected communities, and rebuilding destroyed markets and infrastructures. This revelation is in line with World Food Program 2021 estimates that showed the WFP helped 1,511,008 people in August, a 34 per cent increase over July. 10,649 newly arrived residents of the Borno and Yobe State towns of Bama, Banki, Dikwa, Gujba, Geidam and Pulka got prepositioned emergency food rations.

CONCLUSION

The study aimed to assess the impact of Boko Haram on the development of the northeastern region of Nigeria in terms of development, challenges preventing development in the region and solutions. In line with the results of the study, the Boko Haram sect’s operations are the most heinous events Northern Nigeria has ever witnessed, particularly in the most affected states in the region. Destruction of buildings, and markets and the imposition of curfews, impacted commercial enterprises, leaving thousands of young people unemployed. As predicted by strain theory, this trend can multiply the area’s socioeconomic activities because these youngsters may resort to additional illicit ways of survival. The situation caused some local businessmen to go bankrupt. These challenges caused the state’s economy to collapse and further hampered economic activity in the area by preventing foreign and indigenous merchants from freely investing and operating their companies in the area without fear of being attacked.

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