Determinants of Safe Water Consumption Among Households in Numan Local Government Area, Adamawa State

Determinants of Safe Water Consumption among Households in Numan Local Government Area, Adamawa State

Atiman Kasima Wilson¹ & Mina Bala Usman²

 Department of General Studies, Federal Polytechnic, Bali^1,2

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2023.7012131

Received: 15 December 2023; Accepted: 20 December 2023; Published: 14 January 2024

ABSTRACT

The importance of water to man and economic growth   is a yet to be exhausted in academic literature. Water can be defined as a colorless, tasteless and finite substance. A healthy population will produce a healthy workforce. A healthy work force will therefore  positively contribute to the gross domestic product (GDP)in a country. It is against this backdrop, this study underscores the determinants of household water consumption and also, to examine the relationship between factors that determine household water consumption in Numan Local Government Area (LGA)of Adamawa State, Nigeria. The study sourced data using primary method of data collection through administering  structured questionnaire, interview and focus group discussion. Data collected was analyzed using Ordinary Least square (OLS) model and descriptive statistics like bar charts. The study anchored on the Absolute income hypothesis introduced by Keynes. Determinants considered in the model includes income, age,  expenditure on water, family size and education. The OLS  result show  the coefficient of income being -0.000739 suggests that a 1 unit increase in Income will lead to a 0.000739 units decrease in average quantity of water consumed, and it is statistically significant in explaining average quantity of water consumed at 5% level of significance. The coefficient of age being -1.634210 suggests that 1 unit increase in age will lead to a 1.634210 units decrease in average quantity of water consumed for the family. The coefficient of family size being 15.44506 suggests that a 1 unit increase in family size will lead to a 15.44 units increase in average quantity of water consumed. The results from the study reveal that occupation of households in the study area showing that most households are business men and women (42.7%),famers(35.4%) and civil servants(8.3%). The study concludes that water-borne disease is a major cause of death in Numan (LGA) and most LGAs in Adamawa state. The study recommends an increase in budgetary allocation to the water ministry by the state government. Furthermore, the study also, recommends sensitization to households in Numan Local Government Area and Adamawa State at large by government and stakeholders on the need to consume clean water and avoid vandalizing water infrastructures in the state.

INTRODUCTION

Water is   very important to humans, plant and animals.  Water is also useful in achieving economic growth and sustainable development.  According to Atiman, Adewusi and Zummo  (2022), Up to 60% of human body is water and about 70% of the earth’s surface is water. Kagu and Maidugu(2001) are of the view that water  plays  a crucial  role  in promoting health, hence  a life wire. Akram (2020) also agree that  safe drinking water is one  of the basic  human needs and poor drinking water is  directly associated  with various  waterborne diseases.

The growing population and urbanization have become obstacles for adequate access and availability of water to households in developing countries including Nigeria. According to Juryilla(2015),  access to water  become complicated  due to lack of  household data on consumption levels which will assist  government plan  for  water  provision   in both urban and rural  areas.

According to World Water Council (2000) cited in  Umar( 2012.) , affirmed that  water crisis  is prevalent in urban areas. Oruonye(2008) also,  posited that water  problems  rise from two  major factors: First is distribution of  water in time  and space in relation to the needs of people. Second, is the failure of planning and management of the water resources to ensure temporal and spatial convergence between demand for and supply of  water.

Also, Sule (2003) opined that by year 2030 , there will  be 50 % increase  in demand for  domestic  water  and that  more than half  of the world  population especially the poor nations will face severe  water  shortage.

The need to achieve adequate provision of portable water supply has been recognized by governments and development agencies all over the world. This is attributed to its importance in so many aspects of human life like health, dignity, economic growth and development.

The importance of water  to man also  led to the inclusion of a specific water-related target in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the sustainable Development goals (SDGs) Atiman, Adewusi and Zummo(2022).Investigation by  WHO(2005) cited in Global Development Network (2013) revealed that 1.8 million people die globally every year as a result of diseases caused by unclean water and poor sanitation. There is urgent need  to address water shortage and unclean water consumption among households in every community and city. What is obtained in most developing countries is persistent shortage in water supply to meet increasing demand for water leading to sanitation crisis and increase death rate from unclean water consumption(Boniface, 2021). It is against the backdrop, this study is carried out to achieve the following objectives:

1. Examine the determinants of household water consumption.
2. Examine the relationship between determinants of water and  water consumption.

The demand for clean water is fast increasing at a rate greater than the world’s population growth.  According to Boniface, Joshua and Bala  (2020), as population and urbanization increase, the challenges faced by public authorities in developing economies to provide clean water  also increase in scope; The provision of basic utilities such as electricity supply, good and well planned urban road networks hinder the provision of portable water to households; Another hindrance is lack of political will from the part of government of most developing countries.

Nura et al., (2020) in a study titled Water Consumption Determinants in  Rimin  Kebe  Area, Ungogo Local Government Area , Kano State, Nigeria. The study investigated the major determinants of water consumption in the study area using questionnaires. The study found family size, income level, and time travel to water source to be positively significant. The study also found that   34% of residents in the study area trekked   more than one hour  to source of water and  70% had little or no western education.

Wojdalski,  et al (2013) conducted a study on  Determinants of Water Consumption in Dairy  Industry .The  objective of the study  was to analyze the correlation between  water production factors ,equipment and water consumption. Results from the study found water consumption to be high in dairy plants.  Results also showed that   water consumption was most highly correlated with installed capacity of electrical devices. Fattahi, Alipourfard and  Habibi(2013) also  analyzed  determinants of  mineral water consumption  in Tehran.  the objective of the study  was to investigate the relationship between independent variables like age, education and household numbers  and water consumption. Results from the study  showed  that there is a direct relationship between mineral water consumption and educational level of consumers  and found an inverse relationship  between number of  household  and amount  of mineral water consumption. Akram (2020)  conducted a study titled  Consumption  of Safe  Drinking Water in Pakistan .The study  was  to  analyze  the household preferences for  drinking water sources  and the adoption of household  water treatment (HWT) in Pakistan. The study used the household survey data. The study found that people living  in rural areas , those with  older  household heads, and large family size are less likely to use  water from bottle  or filtered water. The study also found higher income and women who enjoy   higher level of empowerment are more likely to adopt water purifying methods at home.  Whittington, Lauria and Mu  (1989), in a study of water vending in Onitsha, Nigeria, observed that most households obtain their water supplies from well-organized water vending system that is operated by the private sector. In this city, on annual basis, households pay water vendors over twice the cost of piped water.

A similar study carried out by Whittington et al.,(1989) in Kaduna and Katsina, Nigeria shows that vendors charge as much as 20 times the unit rate of the respective State Water Agencies. In general, the poorest families pay more per month than some of the richest who can afford a connection to their compound or house. The amount, for a very limited volume of supply from private water vendors, can be four to ten times that of one month’s continuous tap supply from public utility.

Joseph and Adelegan (2001) conducted a research on the investment appraisal of the privatization of water supply in Nigeria. The study employs the use of secondary data from 1999 first quarterly report of the National Water Rehabilitation Project which is IBRD funded. The study model investment into the rehabilitation project and also simulates the cost recovery pattern and profitability index with the attendant service delivery. The work sample covers ten Nigerian urban and sanitation centers.

Since water is a commodity in the natural monopoly market, its consumption depends on income all  things being equal. . Consumption accounts for a significant proportion of national income; hence, it is a vital ingredient to promote economic growth .Given the above, this study is anchored on the  Absolute  income hypothesis

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Absolute Income Hypothesis:

Keynes introduced Absolute Income Hypothesis (AIH) from the general Theory. He  stated  that consumption  is a function  of income . If income rises, consumption will also rise but not necessarily at the same rate. Absolute Income Hypothesis was further refined during the 1960s and 1970s notably by American economist James Tobin. The AIH is described using four pillars namely; Marginal propensity to consume (Mpc), Marginal Propensity to Save, and Average propensity to Consume (Apc) and Average Propensity to Save

The Concept of Water: Water is a unique commodity that is not only a physical good, but also a cultural and social resource with great economic and political significance which is essential to man, animals and plants (Balance &Tayloy, 2005). This has a long history from the beginning of human civilization people have settled close to water sources along rivers (river Nile that gave birth to the Neolithic Revolution), besides lakes or natural springs. Indeed, where people live some water sources are normally available for drinking, domestic use and possibly for watering animals (Hofkes, 1981).

Water demand   refers to the demand for water to satisfy human needs. Household or domestic water demand refers to demand for water to satisfy needs like cooking, drinking, washing, bathing and general sanitation.

Determinants of water consumption

There are several factors that determine water consumption. According to  oyerinde and  Jacobs (2022) several  socio-economic, demographic and climatic factors  influence  the demand  for  residential and  municipal water. Bradley ( 2004),  also agree that a mix of socio-economic  variables  of the target population  should be considered as determinants .  This study therefore, will  discuss determinants of water consumption  as follows;

1. Price :Price of a commodity like water is expressed in two ways. i.e. Current price and future price. Price of water is the amount of money an individual is able to pay for a commodity including  water. Price for water  may  sometimes be subsidized. According to  Jurylla (2015),  because water  is a public good, most water authorities  often charge  price  that  does not reflect  the full value  of water . According to Whittington(2009), the contention  among economist is  whether  price of water  should  reflect  the full value.

2. Distance: Another factor that affects household water consumption is physical distance from source of water. According to Hikma(2012), distance  involved in fetching water  is  inversely  related to capital consumption  of water. This means the farther the distance from the source of water, the lower will be the quantity of water consumption. One disadvantage of    longer distance to fetch water is that the time which could have been used for other    productive activity like schooling or  trade will be used to fetch water. The  World  Health Organization Joint  Monitoring  Program  on water and sanitation states that access to drinking water means that the source of water is less than 1 kilometer away from its place of use  and that is possible to reliably  to obtain at  least 20 litres  per member of a  household  per day
3. Income Level: income level is another factor in household water  consumption. Purchase of steady clean and portable water requires a certain level  of income.  In developing countries, the percentage of low income earners is usually high. Consumption of bottle water for drinking and  access to  connection from a public utility requires   relative income. For this rea son, high income earners consume more clean water than low income earners. Acoording to Schleich and Hillenbrand (2008), in developing world,  income elasticity variables  are prevalent  for water determinants.

METHODS

The Study Area

Numan Local Government Area is among the  21 local government area in Adamawa State which was carved out from Gongola state. The predominant  ethnic group in numan  are the Bwatiye (Bachama) led by  a first class king  known as Hama Bachama  who is the paramount ruler of the Bachama kingdom.

The dry season  in numan is oppressively hot and partially cloudy while the wet season is also, oppressively  hot and overcast. The average  annual temperature fluctuates between  15⁰ C – 37⁰C. The major occupation in numan  is farming and fishing.

Sources of Data / Analytical Technique

Data for the study was sourced from both primary and secondary sources. This means the method for data collection was both quantitative and qualitative. The instrument for the quantitative data collection used structured questionnaires divided into different sections in line with the research objectives and the qualitative aspect involved the use of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs)

Model

This study  employed the ordinary least square  regression model.  The model is given below as

DW= β Ed+ βAg+ βHz+ βinc+ βex+ βocp  + U_{t……………        .}(1)

      Where :  DW= Demand for water

                      Ed= Education

                       Ag = Age

                              Hz = house size/ family size

                                Inc= Income

                                  ex= expenditure

                                  Ocp= Occupation

RESULTS  AND DISCUSSION

Dependent Variable: AVQWCD

Method: Least Squares

Date: 12/10/23   Time: 08:58

Sample: 1 395

Included observations: 395

The result of the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression analysis revels that income and age have negative relationship with average quantity of water consumed. On the other hand, expenditure and family size have positive relationship with the dependent variable – average quantity of water consumed.

The coefficient of income being -0.000739 suggests that a 1 unit increase in Income will lead to a 0.000739 units decrease in average quantity of water consumed, and it is statistically significant in explaining average quantity of water consumed at 5% level of significance.

The coefficient of Expenditure being 0.001074 suggests that a positive relationship exists between expenditure and average quantity of water consumed. The coefficient being 0.001074 suggests that a 1 unit increase in expenditure will leads to a 0.001074 units increase in average quantity of water consumed, however, it is not statistically significant in explaining average water consumed.

The coefficient of age being -1.634210 suggests that 1 unit increase in age will lead to a 1.634210 units decrease in average quantity of water consumed for the family. The coefficient of family size being 15.44506 suggests that a 1 unit increase in family size will lead to a 15.44 units increase in average quantity of water consumed.

The R² of the model being 0.63 suggests that 63% of the variation in average quantity of water consumed is explained by the variable modelled. The remaining 37% of variation is explained by all other variable not captured in the model. The Durbin Watson statistic being 1.89 is close to 2, and it suggests the absence of serial correlation among the residuals of the model.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

Figure 4.1:Education  level of  Respondents

Figure 4.1 shows the  educational  qualification of respondents in the study area. The diagram reveals that most households obtained secondary education followed by those with diploma qualification. Some  households also hold postgraduate qualification while others obtained  primary  education and a few had no formal education .However, findings from the study  revealed that education   does not significantly affect average  daily water consumption by households.

Figure 4.2: Occupation  of  Respondents

Table 4.2 shows  majority of  respondents  in the study area are mostly  business men and women while some are farmers and civil servants. Least among respondents are  private sector workers. Furthermore, findings from the study reveal that occupation  have no positive significance on average daily water consumption among households in the study area.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study was conducted using both primary and secondary data. The research was able to highlight the importance of water to man in relation to economic growth and sustainable development. The research was also, the study tried to examine determinants of water in relation to household water use for domestic purposes s like drinking, cooking, washing, bathing and sanitation.

Findings of the study reveal that households consume more water for drinking and bathing during the hot seasons and less during wet/ rainy seasons.

The research concludes that water demand exceeds water supply in the study area. The findings of the research show that a positive relationship exist  between expenditure of households on water and  the average quantity of water consumption daily. Findings from the study also, show that income is  statistically  significant in  average quantity of  daily water consumption at 5% significance level. The research  concludes that the Adamawa State water board which is the agency saddled with the responsibility of water supply to residents in Numan LGA.  The water system in Numan LGA is public sector oriented, controlled and management by Adamawa State Water Board. Findings from the research show that the machineries used by the water board are outdated and erratic power hinders its operation in meeting the water needs of the residents. Given the above, the research concludes that these factors. This caused residents to rely for water supply from other sources like water vendors, private boreholes, effort from children and family members who trek long distance and carry water in jerry cans ,buckets and containers.

Finally, the study recommends an increase in budgetary allocation to the water ministry. Furthermore, and sensitization to households in Numan Local Government Area and Adamawa State at large on the need to consume clean water and avoid vandalizing water infrastructures in the state.

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