Determining the Assurance of Rights and Interests for Gig Workers in the Malaysian Ride-Hailing Industry: A Strategic Analysis for Sustained Industry Participation

Determining the Assurance of Rights and Interests for Gig Workers in the Malaysian Ride-Hailing Industry: A Strategic Analysis for Sustained Industry Participation

Silvia Devita Syahril

Faculty of Business and Management, University Teknologi MARA,

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9010170

Received: 04 January 2025; Accepted: 10 January 2025; Published: 10 February 2025

ABSTRACT

This study explores the rights and interests of ride-hailing workers within Malaysia’s growing gig economy, which offers both opportunities and challenges. The gig economy, particularly in ride-hailing services, provides flexibility and increased income potential but also raises concerns regarding worker protections. This study explores the working conditions, employment status, and social protections available to ride-hailing workers in Malaysia, focusing on issues such as worker classification, fair earnings, safety measures, and the power dynamics between platform companies and workers. Additionally, the paper examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the stability of workers’ incomes and the overall gig economy. A significant gap in the existing literature is the lack of comprehensive analysis into the unique challenges faced by Malaysian gig workers, especially in navigating the post-pandemic landscape. The research methodology involves a quantitative approach by using questionnaires surveys with ride-hailing drivers to gather insights into their experiences. The expected findings suggest that while ride-hailing services offer flexibility, many workers still struggle with income instability, limited social protections, and an imbalance of power between workers and platform companies. The paper proposes that for sustained industry participation, policy reforms are necessary, including clearer worker classification, improved social protections, and strategies to ensure more stable incomes. By addressing these issues, the study aims to contribute to the development of a more balanced regulatory framework in Malaysia’s gig economy, promoting both innovation and the well-being of gig workers.

Keywords: gig economy, gig worker, ride-hailing, rights and interests of gig workers and regulatory frameworks.

INTRODUCTION

The term gig economy alludes to these less organized work courses of action and adaptable occupations interceded through different online stages. This is moreover known as non-traditional work courses of action. Gig economy alludes to a labor advertisement characterized by predominance of short-term contracts or independent work as restricted to conventional business.

Labor market industries are in a constant state of change. Digital transformation and advancement in technology are contributing to the changes of labor market patterns. Labor markets are dynamic and subject to continuous change, which are driven by digital transformation and technological advancements. Rapid digital transformation and the spread of information and communication technology and the continued stagnation of manufacturing sector has combined to dramatically change the labor market and work patterns around the world (Donovan et al., 2016; Stewart & Stanford, 2017 and Kassi & Lehdonvirta, 2018). Improved connectivity at time of limited factory jobs has facilitated the rise and growth of the ‘gig economy’ (Graham et al., 2017). Agreeing to the Universal Media transmission Union (ITU), the Joined together Nations’ specialized data and communication innovation (ICT) body, there are 4.9 billion individuals utilize web in 2021 which is meaning that 63% of the world’s populace was associated online routinely. For the affect of worldwide digitalization expanded web get to together with widespread COVID-19, there are a few varieties in America (81%), Asia & Pacific (61%) and Africa (33%) as of 2021 (ITU, 2021). Cases of gig workers are specialists, project-based laborers and part-time hires.

According to the current circulations and demand, many businesses are shifting their focus towards digital platforms that require a flexible workforce which can provide consumers requests at the click of the digital applications or apps. This market is known as ‘gig economy’. Gig economy is a new form of contingent work characterized by non-standard employment relationships, digital platforms and flexible work arrangements (Albino et al., 2018) and (Kalleberg and Vallas, 2018) defines the gig economy as work arrangements where workers are hired for a short-time engagement, typically on a task-by-task or project-by-project basis. According to the International Labor Organization (ILO, 2016), the ‘gig economy’ also known as the on-demand economy, generally comprises two types of work which are crowd work and on-demand-led-work.

Driven by these factors such as technological advancement, desire for flexibility and evolving workplace preferences make the gig economy growing exponentially. The rise of the gig economy sector is also a reflection of rising unemployment levels and the limits of traditional off-line labor market which led to a bottom-up demand and supply in the online market economy. Previously, during the recession, the majority of people were either looking for a new job or moving to another country in search of employment. Because gig work allows people to switch from traditional full-time employment to online-based flexible work arrangements, it has created new options to address underemployment and unemployment. Nonetheless, there is frequently an inherent precarity associated with these occupations (Huang et al., 2020).

Objective

This study’s overall goal is to analyze and identify ways to protect gig workers’ rights and interests in Malaysia’s ride-hailing sector, with a particular emphasis on social protections, stable incomes, and ethical labor practices to encourage long-term industry growth and sustained participation.

Problem Statement

An essential component of Malaysia’s transportation business is the gig economy, especially the ride-hailing industry. However, ensuring their rights and interests are protected presents serious difficulties for gig workers, particularly those in the ride-hailing sector. These employees do not have access to standard employment benefits like health insurance, paid time off, and retirement plans because they are independent contractors (Chin et al., 2020). In addition, a lot of workers deal with irregular pay, unstable employment, and little legal protection (Sulaiman et al., 2022). The absence of a clear legal framework that ensures gig workers are treated fairly exacerbates these problems (Goh et al., 2021).

Concerns over the long-term viability of the gig worker in Malaysia’s ride-hailing sector are raised by the lack of sufficient protections. Higher turnover rates and reduced engagement among gig workers are caused by elements including unfavorable working circumstances, a lack of support, and low job satisfaction (Abdullah et al., 2021). According to studies, the incapacity to protect fundamental rights may also result in disengagement and a drop in the industry’s overall growth and efficiency (Yong et al., 2020).

Considering these difficulties, a strategic analysis is essential to ascertain the actions required to guarantee the rights and interests of gig workers. According to Kamarudin et al. (2023), such a study would offer insights into practical policy options that could improve workers’ job security, job satisfaction, and long-term involvement in the business.

Gap of Knowledge

Extensive research has been conducted on the gig economy and its global implications; however, the unique challenges encountered by gig workers within Malaysia’s ride-hailing sector have not been thoroughly examined. Many current studies tend to concentrate on the overall characteristics and economic effects of the gig economy, while offering minimal insight into the legal, social, and psychological dimensions concerning the rights and interests of gig workers in Malaysia (Chin et al., 2020).

A significant gap in the existing literature pertains to the insufficient exploration of the mechanisms enabling gig workers to obtain benefits such as healthcare, retirement plans, and job security (Goh et al., 2021). Although research addressing global trends in the gig economy underscores these issues, there remains a notable lack of region-specific investigations that scrutinize the distinct legal and regulatory frameworks present in Malaysia (Sulaiman et al., 2022). Furthermore, there is a scarcity of studies that have examined the long-term viability of the ride-hailing sector concerning the welfare of its workforce, particularly from a strategic viewpoint that emphasizes worker engagement and retention (Yong et al., 2020).

An additional area that warrants further investigation is the convergence of gig workers’ rights and the changing influence of technology on work conditions in the ride-hailing sector. Research indicates that the algorithm-driven nature of ride-hailing platforms results in a lack of transparency and an inequitable allocation of work and remuneration (Abdullah et al., 2021). However, there is a scarcity of studies examining how these technological factors affect the rights and interests of workers within the Malaysian context.

Finally, although numerous studies emphasize the significance of job satisfaction and employee engagement within the gig economy (Kamarudin et al., 2023), there remains a lack of emphasis on identifying strategic interventions that can promote ongoing participation in the industry by improving worker rights and well-being. This deficiency creates an opportunity for research that combines legal, economic, and social aspects to deliver a thorough analysis of the strategies necessary for enhancing the protection of rights for gig workers in Malaysia.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The gig economy in Malaysia, like in many other countries, has been growing in recent years. Gig economy is identified as a new source of economic growth and would be made part of the Twelfth Malaysia Plan for the period of 2021 2025. According to the World Bank data in 2019, about twenty six percent of the total of 15.3 million Malaysian workforces are freelancers and this trend is increasing approximately close to four million freelancers (Nursilah Ahmad et al., 2020). The impact of global digitalization and COVID-19 has certainly raised the gig economy in Malaysia. The sector offers potential attractiveness to participants in the form of easy entry and exit work (Donovan et al., 2016). Gig work attracts individuals who are seeking an easy way into the international markets beyond local labor markets as long as they have internet connections (Graham et al., 2017).

The gig economy in Malaysia encompasses a range of both advantageous and disadvantageous elements, influencing workers, businesses, and the broader economic landscape. Similar to other nations, the gig economy in Malaysia is intricate and diverse, presenting a mix of opportunities and challenges. Notable advantages include the flexibility it offers workers to manage their personal and professional lives, the potential for additional income, and the availability of entrepreneurial avenues with minimal barriers to entry. This sector contributes to economic expansion, encourages innovation, and enables businesses to enhance their operational efficiency. Conversely, it also introduces difficulties such as income volatility, insufficient social protections, and job insecurity for workers, along with regulatory deficiencies and quality assurance concerns for businesses. The prevalence of dominant platforms leads to power disparities, while the undervaluation of gig work and rising income inequality further intensify social inequities. To navigate these complexities, it is essential to implement balanced policies that promote a sustainable and inclusive gig economy. The effects of this economy differ across various sectors and individuals, and it remains a topic of active debate and regulatory evolution.

The gig economy, while showcasing a significant rise in the workforce, simultaneously brings to light the less favorable aspects associated with it. The concerns are on the rights, welfare considerations and the safety for gig work. The extreme flexibility of the gig economy business model is in contrast with employment when it comes to workers’ rights and job security (Kaine & Josserand, 2019).

The improvement in the gig economy advertising can lead to vulnerability over the lawful status of and rights of gig specialists which raises concerns over misuse. Thus, the gig economy has been the subject of petulant lawful and political wrangle about. The British Labor Party has criticized it to be making more ‘insecure work’ which permit bosses to ‘duck the responsibilities’ (McDonnell, 2018). The contention and criticize premise for that, in the gig economy, gig workers’ rights are side-lined in the pretense of showcase productivity. In conventional and routine work connections setups, specialists are subordinate to their boss and have no control over working time courses of action or take off. Instep, different rights such as compensation and benefits are ensured by the manager (Donovan et al., 2016). On the other hand, stage firms or administrators respect taking an interest gig laborers as free temporary workers in the gig economy advertise. Instep of giving them a adaptability in their work and flexibility to move in and out of the showcase division, they maintain a strategic distance from the burden of money related securities such as compensation and benefits (Friedman, 2014 and Donovan, 2016).

The gig economy offers different benefits to buyers, huge organizations, and laborers. For customers, it gives a wide range of choices and comfort in getting to administrations. Expansive organizations take advantage from work adaptability and taken a toll investment funds in their operations. Laborers, in turn, appreciate adaptable working hours, competitive profit, and the opportunity to select the sort of work they need to lock in in. A few moreover appreciate the opportunity to get quick instalment instep of having to hold up until the conclusion of the month. In Malaysia, for illustration, there are a noteworthy number of Food panda and Snatch Nourishment riders, with 13,000 and 10,000 individually in the Klang Valley, catering to the request for nourishment conveyance administrations. Individuals are progressively taking on gig occupations to supplement their salary, and this slant has been especially grasped by understudies, the unemployed, and new graduates who are looking for business. In any case, the more youthful era, who are more tech-savvy, may be less centered on sparing for retirement.

Additional points of interest of gig occupations incorporate more prominent adaptability in completing assignments, expanded autonomy in work execution, more work openings, and decreased transportation costs, as numerous gig laborers can perform their errands from domestic. By the by, it’s vital to note that gig specialists regularly do not get benefits like social security, annuities, wellbeing care, or paid therapeutic take off. They too confront potential challenges such as social confinement, abuse, questionable instalment structures, and constrained openings for career progression (Gaile, 2019).

For firms that enlist transitory or gig laborers, they must carefully arrange how these specialists fit into their long-term organizational methodologies. Whereas there are focal points in terms of not requiring giving physical office space or a human asset office, brief laborers may be less solid, and it can be challenging to enroll upper-level and official administration positions in the long run (Gaile, 2019).

The gig economy works in an advanced environment where the request for gig occupations and the supply of laborers are right away coordinated through apps and online stages. In any case, a ponder by Cost Waterhouse Coopers has recommended that the gig economy may incidentally put specialists in a circumstance where they confront aptitudes and career restrictions. Transitory or part-time positions in the gig economy may ruin specialists from creating strong abilities or building in-depth ability, which might give them with a more positive career way. Furthermore, these brief employments may take them away without the opportunity to construct up preparatory investment funds to back them in times of need.

Certain portions of the gig economy, especially in ride-sharing and nourishment conveyance administrations, have raised open concerns related to aptitudes advancement and retirement arranging. Whereas gig economy specialists appreciate autonomy and adaptability in their work hours, they are not entitled to company-sponsored retirement plans. Furthermore, low-skilled employments in the gig economy frequently have restricted prospects for career progression, which can be a concern for specialists. Gig laborers with higher levels of instruction may confront abilities bungles or discover themselves categorized as underemployed. Other challenges incorporate unpredictable workloads and require overseeing instalments from numerous managers, which can contribute to expanded push levels.

In differentiate to full-time laborers who get benefits like the Workers Provident Support (a required retirement conspires by the Malaysian government), monetary security, annuities, and protections scope, gig laborers ordinarily do not appreciate such benefits. This is since gig economy laborers are regularly enlisted as sellers or autonomous temporary workers by the businesses that enlist them for their services.

As the gig economy proceeds to grow nearby the conventional work advertise, it remains questionable whether the gig economy will eventually supplant conventional work models or if they will coexist, each advertising distinctive points of interest and impediments for laborers.

In a long time, the share of occupations that do not include a formal worker and boss relationship is expanding. The development of advanced foundations counting situating advances, remote systems and portable gadgets has alter individuals as well as created a unused showcase opportunity that coming about from the major financial affect over a wide run of divisions and one of being that is the sharing economy. The number of sharing stages have risen which is empowered people to share products and administrations like cars, family items, houses and administrations (Zervas, Proserpio and Byers, 2017). One striking around the world affect of sharing stages is the way routine businesses such as transportation and travel administrators have changed. The web of things has brought around troublesome innovation progresses on the transportation industry around the world by presenting e-hailing or moreover known as ride-sharing administrations to supplant the ordinary taxi framework. The e-hailing drive such as Get, Uber, Lyft, Didi Chuxing and MyCar, a modern ride-sharing app that as of late risen in Malaysia, have disturbed the transportation industry by advertising apps for travelers to book a taxi by means of online.

The concept of ride-sharing has risen as an elective transportation strategy to decrease the number of vehicles on the street and meet the request for taxis. This concept includes travelers sharing car ventures, coming about in a diminish in the add up to number of vehicles on the street, as numerous people travel to the same goal together. This approach has demonstrated compelling in tending to the issue of activity blockage, particularly in urban regions where it postures a noteworthy challenge. Numerous urban inhabitants have grasped this e-hailing elective as it decreases transportation costs and holding up times, basically since the existing open transportation framework regularly cannot enough serve the tall traveler request (Sources: Charles and Kline, 2006; Santos and Xavier, 2015).

The ride-hailing administrations is a sharing concept was to begin with presented in Walk 2009 in San Francisco, Joined together States, through the dispatch of UberCab by Garrett Camp and Travis Kalanick. The official dispatch of Uber’s administrations utilizing portable apps taken after in 2011. Due to the solid request for such administrations, various unused ride-sharing companies have developed all inclusive. In Malaysia, Uber made its passage in late 2013, taken after by Get in 2014. The presentation of e-hailing has disturbed the conventional taxi industry in Malaysia, in spite of the fact that it at first confronted resistance and challenges from customary taxi drivers. Eminently, the Malaysian government amplified its back for the ride-sharing framework in spite of solid challenges from numerous conventional taxi drivers. At first, Uber and Snatch competed with the existing taxi framework, but Uber left the Malaysian showcase in Walk 2018. Along these lines, six unused ridesharing players entered the showcase. Given the rising significance of the sharing economy show and e-hailing as a troublesome innovative headway inside this setting, there is a compelling requirement for in-depth investigation and examination into this sector.

Ride-hailing administrations allude to the booking of transportation through smartphone applications in collaboration with transportation arrange companies (as characterized by Pham et al., 2017). In the cutting edge, technology-driven period, the ride-hailing benefit industry has experienced huge development, as famous by (Furuhata et al., 2013). This benefit has picked up far reaching acknowledgment among customers all inclusive, counting in Malaysia.

In Malaysia, ride-hailing administrations were authoritatively legalized in July 2017, and there are right now five ride-hailing benefit companies working in the nation. These companies incorporate Snatch, Riding Pink, PICKnGO, Dacsee, and MULA car, as detailed by (Rao, 2018). Among these benefit suppliers, Get, which procured Uber in Walk 2018, stands out as the biggest and most well-known ride-hailing benefit supplier in Malaysia to date, as highlighted by (Daga and Aravindan, 2018) and (Get, 2018).

The presentation of ride-hailing administrations has not as it were given an elective for those dependent on open transportation, as pointed out by Dhillon (2017), but it is too anticipated to ease blockage issues in Malaysian cities. The accessibility of ride-hailing administrations has the potential to address a few concerns communicated by travelers with respect to open transportation administrations, especially issues related with ordinary taxi administrations. These issues incorporate taxi drivers choosing their favored travel goals, wastefulness, need of teach, discourteous behavior from drivers, unsavory odors in cabs, and cheating, as recognized by Hamid (2016), Amirul and David (2016), Hui (2017), Khor (2017), and Nair and Leng (2017). In truth, the approach of ride-hailing administrations has started a continuous change of the open transport industry, with a outstanding affect on supplanting conventional taxi administrations, as emphasized by Ahmad (2017) and Aziz (2018).

The Malaysian ride-hailing industry presents both opportunities and challenges for drivers, highlighting critical aspects of the gig economy. Opportunities include flexible working hours, which enable drivers to manage personal and professional commitments while maximizing their income potential during peak demand periods. The gig economy also provides accessible employment, especially for individuals who might face barriers to entering traditional job markets (The Star, 2024). Additionally, the growing reliance on ride-hailing services offers a consistent revenue stream for many drivers, particularly in urban areas (Sinar Daily, 2024). However, significant challenges persist, such as a lack of social protection. Many drivers do not receive benefits like healthcare, insurance, or retirement plans, leaving them financially vulnerable in emergencies (Suhakam, 2024). Drivers also face income instability due to fluctuating demand and platform-determined fare structures that often do not cover operational costs, such as vehicle maintenance and fuel (Sinar Daily, 2024). Job security is another major issue, as the absence of formal contracts makes drivers susceptible to sudden terminations without clear grievance mechanisms (The Star, 2024). Furthermore, work-related stress caused by long hours, traffic congestion, and high customer expectations negatively impacts drivers’ mental and physical health (Suhakam, 2024). Recent developments, including the proposed Gig Economy Workers’ Act and the establishment of the Gig Workers Commission, aim to address these issues by advocating for fairer compensation, enhanced social security measures, and improved working conditions, fostering a more equitable and sustainable gig economy (The Star, 2024).

RIDE-HAILING

The Rights, Intrigued, Well-being and Needs of gig workers

The rights, interface, well-being, and needs of gig specialists are progressively becoming imperative subjects of talk as the gig economy proceeds to develop. Here are a few key considerations:

In the Malaysian ride-hailing industry, gig workers face unique challenges that require comprehensive assurances of their rights and interests to ensure sustained industry participation. Fair compensation stands as a pivotal element, significantly impacting workers’ motivation and job satisfaction. Gig workers anticipate receiving appropriate remuneration for their time, effort, and expertise, which is vital for sustaining their loyalty to the platform. Research indicates that offering fair compensation enhances overall worker satisfaction and engagement (Dube & Hitsch, 2017; Hunt, 2019). Furthermore, ride-hailing platforms must guarantee legal protections and uphold worker rights, including the provision of non-exploitative working conditions, adherence to health and safety regulations, and access to social security benefits. Legal safeguards, such as minimum wage legislation and workplace safety standards, are essential to avert exploitation and ensure equitable treatment (Burtch, Carnahan, & Greenwood, 2018; De Stefano, 2016). In the absence of these protections, gig workers may encounter unjust treatment and instability, jeopardizing their long-term involvement.

Additionally, promoting work-life balance through flexible arrangements is a crucial factor to consider. The opportunity for gig workers to manage their own schedules is a primary appeal of ride-hailing employment. Research on work-life balance indicates that flexible working hours are essential for enhancing job satisfaction and minimizing burnout (Morganson et al., 2010; Wood et al., 2020). Moreover, health and safety standards are vital in building worker confidence and ensuring long-term retention within the industry. Gig workers in the ride-hailing field frequently encounter both physical and mental stress, with extended driving hours posing health risks. Consequently, platforms must prioritize the provision of sufficient health insurance and safety measures to alleviate these concerns (Rosenblat & Stark, 2016; Lynch, 2019).

In addition to remuneration and safeguarding, social security and benefits hold significant importance. Given that gig workers often do not have access to conventional employment benefits, the provision of health benefits, retirement savings plans, and paid leave can greatly enhance the security and well-being of these workers (Katz & Krueger, 2016; Scholz, 2020). Platforms that incorporate social security options are more inclined to retain their workforce and promote ongoing engagement. Furthermore, clarity in communication from the platform is vital for fostering trust and ensuring that gig workers comprehend the methods by which their earnings are determined and the applicable policies. Clear communication fosters a sense of equity, which is critical for cultivating worker loyalty (Chandler, 2019; Healy & Howe, 2017).

The assurance of job security and opportunities for career advancement, although difficult to achieve in the gig economy, remains a crucial consideration. While gig workers typically do not enjoy the same level of job security as traditional employees, the provision of career development opportunities or performance-based incentives can foster long-term commitment to the industry. Kuhn and Maleki (2017) indicate that implementing mechanisms for career progression or financial security within gig platforms can help mitigate worker turnover and enhance overall job satisfaction. In summary, safeguarding the rights and interests of individuals in the ride-hailing sector—encompassing fair remuneration, legal protections, work-life balance, and social benefits—is vital for encouraging ongoing participation and minimizing attrition. Effectively addressing these elements not only enhances worker satisfaction but also contributes to the long-term viability of the ride-hailing industry as a whole.

DEVELOPMENT OF FRAMEWORK

The formulation of the theoretical and conceptual framework for the research titled “Determining the Assurance of Rights and Interests for Gig Workers in the Malaysian Ride-Hailing Industry: A Strategic Analysis for Sustained Industry Participation” incorporates essential theories and concepts to elucidate the factors that affect gig workers’ satisfaction, the assurance of their rights, and their ongoing engagement in the industry. This framework utilizes Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and the Job Characteristics Model (JCM) to illustrate how various aspects of gig employment—such as remuneration, legal safeguards, work-life balance, and opportunities for career advancement—can influence workers’ intrinsic motivation and overall job satisfaction.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) highlights the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness as fundamental psychological needs, which are crucial for comprehending how the rights and interests of gig workers can be safeguarded to promote ongoing participation in the industry. When workers find their tasks meaningful (competence), believe they have authority over their working hours (autonomy), and cultivate positive interactions with the platform and fellow workers (relatedness), their engagement and motivation levels are likely to increase. According to SDT, platforms can enhance worker satisfaction and retention by addressing these psychological needs through equitable compensation, adaptable working conditions, and clear communication.

The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) enhances the existing framework by examining the impact of job design on motivation and job satisfaction. The JCM posits that essential job characteristics, including task variety, skill identity, and autonomy, have a direct influence on employees’ intrinsic motivation and overall job satisfaction. In relation to gig workers within the ride-hailing sector, this theory highlights the necessity of offering meaningful tasks, appropriate rewards, and a sense of achievement. By prioritizing these job characteristics, platforms can foster a greater sense of purpose and motivation among workers, resulting in increased satisfaction and sustained engagement.

The conceptual framework also encompasses practical elements such as equitable remuneration, legal safeguards, health and safety regulations, and social security provisions, all of which are critical in ensuring the protection of workers’ rights. Furthermore, the framework underscores the significance of opportunities for career advancement and the maintenance of work-life balance as vital components that contribute to workers’ job satisfaction and motivation. By synthesizing these elements, the theoretical and conceptual framework offers a thorough perspective for examining the ways in which the protection of workers’ rights and interests influences their engagement and ongoing participation in the Malaysian ride-hailing sector. This framework will serve as a foundation for the empirical research of the study and will aid in the formulation of strategies aimed at enhancing workers’ experiences and retention within the industry.

Proposed New Model

The variables chosen for the formulation of the conceptual framework in this study ought to be substantiated by prior research to enhance the justification for their inclusion in the framework. Please refer to Diagram 1 below for the proposed new research model associated with this study.

 Diagram 1: The proposed Model of Framework

METHODOLOGY

The quantitative approach for this research titled “Determining the Assurance of Rights and Interests for Gig Workers in the Malaysian Ride-Hailing Industry: A Strategic Analysis for Sustained Industry Participation” will employ a structured survey to gather data from a representative cohort of gig workers. This survey will concentrate on essential variables pertaining to workers’ rights and interests, such as equitable compensation, legal safeguards, health and safety regulations, work-life balance, social benefits, and overall job satisfaction. To achieve a comprehensive representation of gig workers, a stratified random sampling method will be implemented, categorizing participants according to criteria such as employment status (full-time versus part-time), industry experience, and work frequency. The aim is to achieve a target sample size of no fewer than 200 respondents, which is anticipated to yield statistically significant findings.

The survey will include a combination of closed-ended questions, in which participants will evaluate their perceptions using a Likert scale, alongside demographic inquiries to gather background information. This approach will facilitate a thorough analysis of the elements influencing gig workers’ satisfaction and their sustained engagement with the platform. The questions will concentrate on various factors, including the fairness of compensation, the sufficiency of legal protections, the quality of health and safety measures, the flexibility of work schedules, and the accessibility of career advancement opportunities.

Upon the collection of data, descriptive statistics—including mean scores, standard deviations, and frequency distributions—will be employed to encapsulate the perspectives of workers and evaluate the overarching trends in their responses. To explore the interconnections between variables, inferential statistics will be utilized, with a focus on correlation analysis to investigate the relationship between factors such as compensation and job satisfaction, as well as multiple regression analysis to pinpoint the most significant predictors of ongoing participation in the ride-hailing industry. The results derived from this quantitative analysis will yield critical insights into how the assurance of workers’ rights influences their job satisfaction and long-term commitment to the sector.

DISCUSSION

It’s vital for governments, businesses, and laborer agents to work together to address these rights, interface, well-being, and needs of gig laborers, endeavoring to make a more impartial and secure environment for those who take an interest in the gig economy. The security of the rights, interface, well-being, and needs of gig specialists shifts essentially by locale, nation, and stage. In numerous places, the rights and well-being of gig laborers have gotten to be a subject of concern and wrangle about. There is a progressing worldwide discussion around how best to ensure the rights, interface, well-being, and needs of gig specialists. The circumstance is advancing, and different partners, counting governments, stages, and laborers themselves, proceed to work towards finding arrangements to guarantee reasonable treatment and a more secure working environment for gig workers.

The Human Rights Commission of Malaysia (SUHAKAM) stands in the way of the Government’s endeavors to set up the Malaysian Gig Economy Commission (SEGiM) and create enactment equipped towards defending the social security of gig specialists. This critical step adjusts concordantly with SUHAKAM’s proposals, pointing to guarantee satisfactory social security for gig workers.

The gig economy in Malaysia has seen eminent extension in later a long time. Be that as it may, the nonappearance of clear laborer categorization and agreed-upon work terms has obstructed gig laborers from getting essential labor rights and basic social security. Moreover, concerns approximately shopper rights and nourishment security have risen due to the unmistakable nature of gig-based services.

Recognizing these challenges, SUHAKAM started dynamic promotion for the rights of gig economy specialists in 2021. As portion of these progressing endeavors, comprehensive interviews were carried out with e-hailing and p-hailing specialists. Notably, later meetings held on Walk 1, 2023, and June 1, 2023, saw the eager inclusion of e-hailing and p-hailing benefit providers.

In full underwriting of this forward-thinking arrange, SUHAKAM is balanced and committed to effectively lock in in the consultative handle for forming the enactment. The essential centre is on guaranteeing a well-balanced and ensured space for the rights of gig specialists and customer interests.

SUHAKAM proposes that a few key contemplations be taken into account, counting clear definitions for gig laborers, the foundation of social assurance frameworks, instruments for lodging complaints, and collective understanding terms related to business steadiness, maternity and yearly take off, therapeutic benefits, commitments to the Social Security Organization (SOCSO), the Worker Provident Finance (EPF), protections scope, as well as guaranteeing a fair and adequate wage floor. Furthermore, the enactment ought to coordinate particular arrangements for buyer rights and the support of nourishment cleanliness in gig-based administrations to cultivate a secure and reliable environment for both specialists and consumers.

SUHAKAM emphatically advocates for ceaseless discourse and collaboration between the Government, industry partners, gig workers’ affiliations, and respectful society organizations. This collaboration points to address the advancing necessities of gig specialists while maintaining shopper rights and guaranteeing nourishment security. The objective is to set up an even handed, comprehensive, and secure framework that shields the rights, well-being, and interface of all included in the gig economy.

While advance has been made in tending to a few of these concerns, the level of security and back for ride-hailing laborers changes altogether from one area to another. Accomplishing an adjustment between specialist rights, industry development, and buyer interface remains a challenge. Collaboration among governments, ride-hailing companies, and laborer affiliations is vital to make a maintainable environment that addresses the needs of ride-hailing laborers whereas keeping up the industry’s financial practicality. Eventually, the well-being and interface of both specialists and travelers ought to be considered to guarantee the industry’s life span and sustainability.

The surge in the gig economy in the Asian locale, driven by fast digitalization and advancing work designs, has given rise to financial and social incongruities particular from conventional labor markets. In our examination, we give a few experiences into the imbalances that characterize the Asian gig economy markets, centering on the working conditions experienced by gig specialists in Malaysia. We too investigate their points of view on tending to these imbalances in the setting of the COVID-19 widespread.

The quick digitization and advancing work designs in the Asian locale have given rise to the gig economy (Tan et al. 2021). In differentiate, this rising labor showcase proceeds to create financial and social aberrations special to Asia and unmistakable from conventional labor markets. Our examination offers a few experiences into the imbalances display in the Asian gig economy markets and contributes to the continuous scholastic discourses with respect to showcase disparities during the COVID-19 widespread. This is accomplished by looking at the working conditions experienced by gig specialists in Malaysia and their points of view on tending to these imbalances. Our investigation sheds unused light on two viewpoints: (i) improving social assurance for gig economy specialists and (ii) the suggestions for post-pandemic disparity, especially considering the crevices in current arrangements for gig specialists, by investigating their sees on working conditions and tending to disparity issues confronted by gig laborers in Malaysia.

In Malaysia, ride-hailing drivers and online nourishment conveyance riders are the favored occupations due to their moo section obstructions. In any case, the appropriation of performance-based approaches and the development of the labor advertise amid COVID-19 have started critical talks about social assurance and disparity. One major concern is the wage of gig specialists, which is unexpected on the fragile adjust between buyer request and specialist supply. Whereas ride-hailing drivers experienced wage decreases amid the widespread due to a sharp decrease in client request, online nourishment conveyance laborers confronted supported request. To address this supply-demand harmony, the Malaysian government presented short-term motivations for ride-hailing drivers. Whereas these motivations give a security net for laborers amid short-term emergencies, they drop brief intending to the long-term steadiness of gig work salary. Eminently, Malaysian online nourishment conveyance riders have dissented against the moo compensation advertised by companies, such as Nourishment Panda and Grab.

The moment issue relates to protections scope. Ride-hailing administrations specialists are required to get their possess protections scope, with laborers bearing the related costs. This places a burden on Asian gig specialists, numerous of whom work full-time due to unemployment or the require for a essential source of wage. The obligation for protections costs usually falls on the laborers themselves, especially those who work long hours and confront expanded dangers of sickness and mishaps. For full-time gig laborers, an ailment or an mishap can result in a total misfortune of their everyday wage. Consequently, it is basic for stage firms and governments to consider elective security nets for gig specialists and other on-demand app workers.

The third issue centers on the control elements inside the gig economy commerce demonstrate. Specialists in the ride-hailing and online nourishment conveyance segments in Malaysia see a certain imbalance in the operations and administrations. They are subject to checking by the stage beneath the pretense of “client centricity” and are regularly locked in passionate labor. Client appraisals have a noteworthy impact on their work openings, propelling specialists to ceaselessly acknowledge orders, minimize cancellations, and upgrade benefit quality. In any case, the criteria for punishments forced by companies on specialists stay dark, and the criticism framework from laborers to clients is restricted compared to the criticism circle from clients to specialists. Tending to specialist security issues in the confront of such data asymmetries is a vital point for numerous other Asian nations. To relieve these data crevices, the article highlights the significance of information sharing among laborers and the positive effect of client input on working conditions.

In Malaysia, drivers and riders diminish data asymmetry by trading encounters on open social media stages like WhatsApp and Facebook and by taking an interest in labor unions and affiliations to remain educated approximately operational changes and controls. In terms of customer-worker interaction, laborers effectively empower fitting criticism from clients, advertising motivating forces and detailing issues to help centers based on the quality of benefit. This is not as if it were propelling specialists but moreover contributes to moving forward benefit quality.

CONCLUSION

To begin with gig laborers regularly see themselves as free temporary workers, and it shows that stage firms keep up a commonly advantageous relationship with them, advertising adaptability and autonomy. In any case, instep of cultivating an open labor showcase with moo passage obstructions, these stage firms have built up a non-interventionist framework that abstains from changing the business status of laborers or formalizing it. In quintessence, by executing an extreme performance-based approach, the gig labor advertises places the obligation and hazard decisively on the shoulders of specialists. On a positive note, the COVID-19 widespread extended the gig labor showcase to include millions of unemployed people, youthful individuals, later graduates, and ladies over Asia. In any case, this extension has moreover laid uncovered the lacks in social assurance and covered up imbalances experienced by gig specialists. By advertising an in-depth understanding of the nature of these disparities emerging from deficient social security, this article presents a firsthand account of workers’ encounters, which can advise open arrangement with respect to financial inequality.

The salary of gig specialists is unexpected on the balance between shopper request and labor supply, and the widespread had shifting impacts depending on the nature of the work. Whereas the ride-hailing division seen a sharp decay in request due to travel confinements, the online nourishment conveyance division flourished as travel confinements were lifted. As such, government bolster is fundamental for the long-term soundness of gig specialists. The required protections prerequisite for gig laborers poses a monetary burden, especially for full-time gig laborers who are always on the street. Governments, particularly in flourishing gig economies like ASEAN nations, India, and China, ought to consider building up security nets to relieve these dangers.

Furthermore, gig workers are compelled to engage in high-quality emotional labor to align with customer-centricity, as they navigate information asymmetries such as opaque customer feedback and punitive standards. The challenges of collective bargaining have underscored the ineffectiveness of the existing profit-oriented nature of the gig labor market in addressing this power imbalance. To facilitate the future growth of the gig economy sector, it is imperative to implement labor-centered policies that counterbalance the profit-driven tendencies of platform firms. Future research should explore the collaborative efforts of various stakeholders aimed at safeguarding the social protection of workers who have been left behind by exploitative business models and laissez-faire approaches adopted by platform firms.

REFERENCES

1. Adam, M., Mui, D., Kee, H., Junaina, I., & Fadhilah, N. (2021). The Influence of Customer Satisfaction on Grab Services in Malaysia The Influence of Customer Satisfaction on Grab Services in Malaysia. June 2020. https://doi.org/10.32535/ijthap.v3i2.820
2. Adams, J. M., & Admiral, V. (2019). The Value of Worker Well-Being. 134(6), 583–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354919878434
3. Aeppel, T. (2016). How the On-Demand / Gig Economy is Redefining Work How the On-Demand / Gig Economy is Redefining Work. 2016.
4. Ahmad, N. (2020). GIG ECONOMY : THE FUTURE OF WORKING. 45–56.
5. Ahmad, N. (2021). Gig Workers : The New Employment Form in the New Economy. The Malaysian Journal of Islamic Science, 33. https://doi.org/10.33102/uij.vol33noS4.419
6. Ahmad, N., Kefeli, Z., Sidek, N. Z. M., & Rahman, M. P. (2020). Gig Economy: The Promise of Platform Work. Islamic Banking, Accounting and Financial International Conference.
7. Ahmadi Nursilah. (2020). Mapping Gig Workers As the New Economy Post Covid-19. International Journal of Communication, Management and Humanities, 1(2), 896–909.
8. Ashford, S. J., Caza, B., & Reid, E. (2018). From surviving to thriving in the gig economy: A research agenda for individuals in the new world of work. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2018.11.001
9. Atiyah, U., & Zakuan, A. (2020). Understanding Women , Employment and Gig : An Overview from Online News Sources. 313–324.
10. Atmore, E. C. (2017). Killing the Goose That Laid the Golden Egg : Outdated Employment Laws Are Destroying the Gig Economy.
11. Bajwa, U., Gastaldo, D., Ruggiero, E. Di, & Knorr, L. (2018). The health of workers in the global gig economy. 1–4.
12. Banik, N. (2019). Could Online Gig Work Drive Economic Growth ? 9(17).
13. Biernat, M., Elmore, A., Estlund, C., Garden, C., Gelernter, L., Rosado, C., Oswalt, M., Perritt, H., Schmidt, C., Stern, S., & Sullivan, C. (2017). P ROTECTING P LATFORM W ORKERS IN THE G IG E CONOMY : L OOK TO THE FTC. 36(2015).
14. Buang, S. (2019). Regulating the Gig economy. New Straits Times.
15. Bulian, L. (2021a). THE GIG IS UP : WHO DOES GIG ECONOMY ACTUALLY BENEFIT ? March. https://doi.org/10.7906/indecs.19.1.9
16. Bulian, L. (2021b). THE GIG IS UP : WHO DOES GIG ECONOMY ACTUALLY BENEFIT ? 19(1), 106–119. https://doi.org/10.7906/indecs.19.1.9
17. Butler, S. (2017). Change law to protect gig economy workers , MPs ’ report urges.
18. Cao, J. (2021). Research on Development and Optimization of Human Resources in Gig Economy. 615(Ichess), 1288–1298.
19. Characteristics, T. H. E., Those, O. F., & The, I. N. (2018). THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THOSE IN THE GIG Final report. February.
20. Chen, L. Y., & Sharif, R. (2020). The Potentials of New Work Environment for Dynamic Workforce in the 21st Century of Malaysia Context. 2(1), 33–37.
21. Cho, W. (2020). Entrepreneurial Challenges in Business Model for the Gig Economy : Agendas for Research and Business Development.
22. Clarke, O. (2018). The gig economy : how has the Government.
23. Clarke, T. (2020). Ethics, Values and Corporate Governance | OpenMind. Values and Ethics for 21st Century, 1–20. https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/articles/ethics-values-and-corporate-governance/
24. Contributor, R. H. (2020). How COVID-19 Has Transformed The Gig Economy.
25. De, E. (n.d.). How does the gig economy shape the future of work ?
26. Deon, L. (2020). Regulating the Scope of Employment in the Gig Economy : Towards Enhanced Rights at Work in the Age of Uber. 5, 190–208.
27. Ganesh, A. (2021). The Gig Economy : An HR Perspective to Managing Platform Workers The Gig Economy : An HR Perspective to Managing Platform Workers. October.
28. Graham, M., & Anwar, M. A. (2019). The global gig economy Toward a planetary labor market
29. Graham, M., Hjorth, I., & Lehdonvirta, V. (2017). Digital labour and development: impacts of global digital labour platforms and the gig economy on worker livelihoods. Transfer, 23(2), 135–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/1024258916687250
30. Harpur, P., & Blanck, P. (2020a). Gig Workers with Disabilities : Opportunities , Challenges , and Regulatory Response. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 30(4), 511–520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10926-020-09937-4
31. Harpur, P., & Blanck, P. (2020b). Gig Workers with Disabilities : Opportunities , Challenges , and Regulatory Response. 0123456789.
32. Harun, N., Ali, N. M., Layali, N., & Ali, M. (2020). An experimental measure of Malaysia ’ s gig workers using labour force survey 1. 36, 969–977. https://doi.org/10.3233/SJI-200749
33. Heeks, R., Graham, M., Mungai, P., & Belle, J. Van. (2021). Systematic evaluation of gig work against decent work standards : The development and application of the Fairwork framework. https://doi.org/10.1080/01972243.2021.1942356
34. Ismail, N. A. (2020). Gig Economy: a New Source of Economic Growth in Malaysia. FBM Insights, 1(Universiti Teknologi Mara Cawangan Kedah), 92. file:///C:/Users/youhe/Downloads/kdoc_o_00042_01.pdf
35. Joo, B. A., & Shawl, S. (2021). COVID-19 Pandemic and the Rising Gig Economy : An Emerging Perspective. Global Economics Science, 16–23.
36. Kasliwal, R. (2020). Gender and the Gig Economy : A Qualitative Study of Gig Platforms for Women Workers. Observer Research Faoundation, 359.
37. Kassim, M. A., Damio, S. M., & Omar, A. R. (2020). Embedding gig economy in Malaysia higher education: The case of universiti teknologi MARA. Asian Journal of University Education, 16(2), 226–234. https://doi.org/10.24191/AJUE.V16I2.7928
38. Khan, F. U., Zhang, J., Usman, M., Badulescu, A., & Sial, M. S. (2019). Ownership reduction in state-owned enterprises and corporate social responsibility: Perspective from secondary privatization in China. Sustainability (Switzerland), 11(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041008
39. Khor, S. (2017). Study: KL Has One of The World’s Least Reliable Public Transportation Systems. [Online] Available from: http://says.com/my/news/study-kuala-lumpur-s-public-transportation-system-is-one-of-the-worst-in-the-world [Accessed: 27 June 2018].
40. Kidd, S. C. (2020). Conceptualizing the Gig Economy in Malaysia. 7.
41. Kondo, A., & Singer, A. (2020). Labor Without Employment : Toward a New Legal Framework for the Gig Economy. 6(5), 2019–2020.
42. Koutsimpogiorgos, N., Slageren, J. Van, & Herrmann, A. M. (2020). Conceptualizing the Gig Economy and Its Regulatory Problems. 525–545. https://doi.org/10.1002/poi3.237
43. Kuhn, K. M. (2016). The rise of the “gig economy” and implication for understanding work and workers. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2015.129
44. Lang, K. (2014). generous research support of the Institute of Industrial Relations at U . C . (Issue July 1992). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-2938-1
45. Legault, L. (2017). Self-Determination Theory. June. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8
46. Lim, R. (2021). Gig economy on the rise. The Star. https://www.hasil.gov.my/pdf/pdfam/20210418_The_Star_Gig_Economy_On_The_Rise.pd
47. Lobel, O. (2020). We Are All Gig Workers Now : Online Platforms , Freelancers & the Battles Over Employment Status & Rights During the Covid-19 Pandemic. April, 919–946.
48. Locke, E. A. (1969). What is job satisfaction? https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(69)90013-0
49. Ly, B. (2020). Employment in the gig economy *. 29–37.
50. Lyaskovskaya, E., & Khudyakove, T. (2021). Sharing Economy: For or against Sustainable Development. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131911056
51. Mahato, M., Kumar, N., & Jena, L. K. (2021). Re-thinking gig economy in conventional workforce post-COVID-19 : a blended approach for upholding fair balance. 13(2), 261–276. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWAM-05-2021-0037
52. Malik, R., & Visvizi, A. (2021). The Gig Economy : Current Issues , the Debate , and the New Avenues of Research. 1–20.
53. Man, C. K., Ahmad, R., Kiong, T. P., & Rashid, T. A. (2022). Evaluation of Service Quality Dimensions towards C ustomer ‟ s Satisfaction of Ride-Hailing Services in. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering (IJRTE), 7(January 2019).
54. Manyika, J., Chui, M., Woetzel, L., & Sanghvi, S. (2017). Jobs lost, jobs gaine: What the future of work will mean for jobs, skill and wages.
55. Marzo, C., Barcelona, G., & Affairs, P. (2019). How governments are dealing with the rise of the gig economy with Carlota Marzo.
56. Md Radzi, M. S. N., Bidin, A., Musa, M. K., & Hamid, N. A. (2022). Protecting Gig Workers ’ Interests in Malaysia Through Registered Association Under Societies Act 1966. IIUM Law Journal, 30(S1), 157–179.
57. Ming, Z., Aggarwal, N., Cowls, J., Morley, J., Taddeo, M., & Floridi, L. (2021). Technology in Society The ethical debate about the gig economy : A review and critical analysis. Technology in Society, 65(April), 101594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101594
58. Mohamed@Jaafar, S., & Mat, N. H. N. (2021). A Conceptual Analysis of Effective Gig Works System for Sustainable Employment in Challenging Times. Journal of Comtemporary Issues in Business and Government, 27, No. 1(May).
59. Nair, S. (2017). E-hailing services out to tackle safety concerns. [Online]. Available from: https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2017/06/21/ehailing-services-out-to-tackle-safety-concerns/ [Accessed: 15th May 2018].
60. Petriglieri, G., Ashford, S. S., Wrzesniewski, A., & Kleinhouse, P. (2018). Thriving in the Gig Economy.
61. Platform workers ’ rights. (2020).
62. Rahim, A. F. A., Yaacob, N. A., Noor, R. M., Najid, N. A., & Zulkifli, N. (2021). Strengthening the Gig Economy: Future of Digital Labor Workforce Platform Post-Covid-19. GADING (Online) Journal for Social Sciences, 24(04), 17–26.
63. Ran, X., & Zhao, Y. (2023). Behind the flexibility : insu cient occupational injury protection of gig workers in China. Frontiers, 6.
64. Rawling, M., & Munton, J. R. (2021). Proposal for legal protections of on-demand gig workers in the road transport industry. January.
65. Razniza, N., Nadzri, M., & Hassan, K. H. (2020). Covid- 19 Outbreak : Opportunity or Risk for Gig Economy Workers. 2020(September).
66. Shah, A., & Lee, B. (2022). Don’t gig up on us, baby: P-hailing riders want full worker rights and benefits. The Star. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/ nation/2022/08/05/don039t-gig-up-on-us-baby-phailing-riders-want-full-worker-rights-and-benefits.
67. Shah, H. J., & Attiq, S. (2018). Abasyn Journal of Social Sciences – Volume:9 – Issue: 1. Abasyn Journal of Social Sciences, 9(11), 201–210.
68. Siti Nur Zahirah Omar, Maliani Mohammad, Che Mohd Syaharuddin Che Cob, & Siti Rosnita Sakarji. (2020). Communication, Management and Humanities. International Journal of Computer Sciences and Engineering, 1(2), 110–115.
69. Spurk, D., & Straub, C. (2020). Flexible employment relationship and careers in times of the COVID-19 pandemic. Elsevier, January.
70. Stefano, V. De. (2016). THE RISE OF THE “ JUS T-IN-TIME WORKFORCE ”: ON -DEMAND WORK , CROWDWORK , AND LABOR PROTECTION IN THE “ GIG – ECONOMY ” This Article provides an analytical overview of the labor implications. 213(2014), 2008–2015.
71. Story, F. (2020). Regulating the Gig Economy.
72. Sukiman, M., Edi, N., Mohamad, A., & Mohd, N. (2021). Exploring Gig Economy ’ s Literature through Bibliometric Analysis Using VOSviewer. International Journal of Business Management, 4(2), 1–13.
73. Tan, J., & Law, E. (2023). Malaysia takes steps to protect gig workers ’ welfare. 2.
74. Teo, B.-C., Mustafa, M. A., & Rozi, A. I. M. (2018). MALAYSIAN JOURNAL OF CONSUMER AND FAMILY ECONOMICS (2018), VOL. 21 TO GRAB OR NOT TO GRAB?: PASSENGER RIDE INTENTION TOWARDS E-HAILING SERVICES Boon-Chui Teo 1 , Muhamad Azimulfadli Mustaffa and Amir Iqbal Mohd Rozi. 21, 153–163.
75. Todoli-Signes, A. (2017). The ‘ gig economy ’: employee , self-employed or the need for a special employment regulation ? 23(2), 193–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1024258917701381
76. Uchiyama, Y., Furuoka, F., & Akhir, M. N. M. (2022). Gig Workers, Social Protection and Labour Market Inequality: Lessons from Malaysia. Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia, 56(3), 165–184. https://doi.org/10.17576/JEM-2022-5603-09
77. Win, T. K. (2022). Advantages And Challenges of The Gig Economy : Perspective from Potential Hospitality Employees. December 2021, 348–363.
78. Wong, S. (2015). the Wealth of Nations. London Business School Review, 26(3), 46–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/2057-1615.12058
79. Wood, A. J., & Hjorth, I. (2019). Good Gig , Bad Gig : Autonomy and Algorithmic Control in the Global Gig Economy. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017018785616
80. Wu, J., & Zhou, J. (2023). Basic psychological needs N Wellbeing in gig economy.pdf. https://doi.org/10.1007/S12144-022-03953-8
81. Yatim, S. (2021). Gig Economy : Improving the welfare of gig workers requires a more targeted approach. The Edge.
82. Zodi, Z., & Torok, B. (2021). Constitutional Values in the Gig-Economy ? Why Labor Law Fails at Platform Work , and What Can We Do about It ? MDPI.