Disruption of 2014 Flood and the Effects on Social Equilibrium

Disruption of 2014 Flood and the Effects on Social Equilibrium

Sarina Yusoff^* & Abdul Hafiz Ab Rahman

Centre for Research in Development, Social and Environment, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, National University of Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8110078

Received: 29 October 2024; Accepted: 06 November 2024; Published: 04 December 2024

ABSTRACT

The 2014 flood disaster had a profound impact on the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, significantly disrupting the social equilibrium within flood-prone communities. This article presents a sociological analysis of the social disruptions experienced by victims in Hulu Dungun, Terengganu, highlighting how these disruptions affected the balance of social systems. Using a qualitative case study design, data were gathered through in-depth interviews and non-participant observations. Fifteen flood victims were selected through purposive sampling, and the data were analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings reveal that the 2014 flood disaster caused various disruptions to the social systems, including job and income loss, changes in social routines, physical health problems, and psychological trauma, all of which disrupted the community’s social equilibrium. The study underscores that both formal and informal disaster management efforts played a pivotal role in reestablishing social equilibrium after the disaster. The results emphasize the importance of effective disaster response measures in mitigating social disruption and facilitating the long-term recovery of affected communities.

Keywords: Flood, Disaster, Sociology, Social Disruption, Social Equilibrium

INTRODUCTION

One of the primary objectives of flood risk management policy in Malaysia is to mitigate the impact of floods and prevent disruptions to the equilibrium of social systems. However, the concept of social disruption, particularly in the context of floods, remains inadequately defined. While the disequilibrium of social systems caused by natural disasters is a critical issue, it has not yet received sufficient attention from sociological perspective (Hagen et al., 2020). Flood disasters are extraordinary events that severely disrupt the psychosocial functioning of individuals, families, and communities, leading to widespread destruction, injury, and displacement (Adams et al., 2022), often overwhelming their resources for recovery (Glago, 2023). This lack of sociological focus on social disruption hinders the development of comprehensive strategies that address not only the physical impacts of floods, but also the social and psychological consequences that undermine community vulnerability and resilience.

Floods, in particular, cause severe disruptions to community life by displacing people, damaging property, causing economic losses, and triggering profound emotional and psychological suffering (Syed Muzamil et al., 2022). Social disruption, in this context, refers to the disturbance of a society’s ability to maintain stability and function, which is essential for the sustainability of its social systems. This disruption involves both physical and socio-psychological elements, and understanding these aspects is crucial for assessing the extent to which natural hazards trigger social disequilibrium. A flood represents a physical hazard with the potential to cause death, injury, loss of property and agriculture, environmental degradation, and interruptions to businesses and livelihoods (Yusoff, 2022). Although other natural disasters, such as landslides, earthquakes, and tsunamis, also pose risks, floods present a significantly higher threat in Malaysia (Hafiz Suliman, 2020). The country’s monsoon seasons and extensive river networks contribute to frequent and severe flooding, making it a persistent threat to social systems and community resilience.

Floods are the most frequent natural disaster in Malaysia and many parts of the world (Romali, 2021). With climate change exacerbating sea-level rise and extreme weather patterns, flood-prone areas in Malaysia are projected to expand by 45% by the end of the century. Consequently, floods are expected to become more frequent due to climate change and human activities (Anwana & Owojori, 2022). The East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia—including Kelantan, Terengganu, and Pahang—regularly experiences floods, with communities adapting to these recurring disasters. However, flood events remain unpredictable, often linked to climate variability in specific regions (Ali, Manakkara & Wilkinson, 2020)).

The growing concern over frequent flooding calls for greater community awareness, effective disaster response, and strategic interventions to reduce risk (Dufty, 2021). For example, coastal communities on the East Coast have adapted by ensuring each household owns a boat or sampan and remains vigilant during the monsoon season when rainfall increases. Although the devastating 2014 flood has passed, it remains a significant event in Malaysia’s disaster history and continues to be the subject of academic study. This study selects the 2014 flood as a key case for exploring the sociological impacts, serving as a critical reference point for understanding future flood events. Each incident varies in terms of timing, location, severity, and extent of losses. This article aims to critically analyse the social disruption faced by flood victims, examining how the 2014 flood challenged the equilibrium social systems of flood victims.

LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review explores the dynamics of communities affected by disasters through the lens of social systems theory, with a particular focus on the 2014 flood in Malaysia. Social systems theory provides a useful framework for understanding how communities maintain stability during crises. According to Talcott Parsons’ functionalist perspective, social systems uphold stability through shared norms, values, and institutions that govern individual behaviour within a society. In Parson’s conceptual framework, the emphasis on the normative aspect of social structure is evident through his concept of equilibrium. According to Parson’s, a society in equilibrium experiences no conflict, with individuals clearly understanding their social role expectations and consistently fulfilling them. While this state of perfect equilibrium is never fully achieved in reality, it represents an ideal condition that society continuously aims to reach. In this context, equilibrium refers to the system’s ability to maintain coherence and stability, even when facing external stressors like natural disasters. Disasters are often seen as external shocks that affect certain survivors, exposing them—but not other similar individuals—to traumatic experiences, new environments, and significant changes in risks and resources, all of which can impact various individual outcomes (Arnold et al., 2022; Kirk, 2020). When equilibrium is disrupted, social systems undergo a period of unstable, impairing normal functioning. Scholars have argued that disasters, such as floods, disrupt this equilibrium by dismantling the physical, economic, and social structures that keep communities functional. A flood disaster is an abrupt and catastrophic flooding event that significantly disrupts the typical operations of a community or society, leading to human, material, or environmental challenges that surpass the community’s or society’s capacity to manage with its available resources (International Federation of the Red Cross, 2021).

This concept of equilibrium forms the foundation for understanding the broader impacts of the 2014 flood on Malaysia’s social systems. Natural disasters have long been recognized as significant disruptors of social systems. In sociological literature, social disruption is defined as the breakdown of societal norms and functions, manifesting in various forms such as displacement, economic loss, and the erosion of social cohesion. Natural disasters are unforeseen negative events caused by natural processes, which can be classified into categories such as tropical cyclones, floods, earthquakes, heatwaves, cold waves, droughts, and ice storms (Staupe-Delgado & Rubin, 2022; Jewson, 2022). Floods, in particular, have a high potential to disrupt community life, causing widespread displacement and damage to essential infrastructure, which, in turn, affects livelihoods, social relationships, and community networks. Devastating floods resulting from rapid urbanization and extreme weather conditions have led to millions of deaths and result in tens of billions of dollars in direct economic losses annually. With the ongoing effects of global warming, these losses are expected to rise in the future (UNISDR, 2020), due to the increasing intensity of extreme precipitation events (Tabari, 2020) and the growing population at risk from water-related disasters (Tellman et al., 2021). Studies have shown that the aftermath of floods often leads to a loss of trust and cooperation within communities, creating challenges for rebuilding social capital. In Malaysia, research on the 2014 flood has highlighted the profound social disruption experienced by communities, especially in the hinterland or upstream area. Flood victims faced the dual challenge of physical displacement and psychological trauma, alongside disruptions in social services and community support structures.

This body of literature underscores the importance of focusing on both the physical and socio-psychological dimensions of disruption in flood-prone areas. The role of flood risk management in preserving social equilibrium has gained increasing attention in both disaster studies and public policy research. Effective flood risk management strategies are designed not only to prevent physical damage but also to mitigate the social disruption that follows disaster events. These strategies typically involve preparedness, response, and recovery measures aimed at minimizing the extent of community disruption. According to IgudaLaden and Saulawa (2021), flood disaster response includes various strategies designed to safeguard lives and property while addressing the social disruptions caused by such disasters. Recent studies have emphasized the importance of social capital in enhancing community resilience, particularly in disaster-prone regions. Social capital refers to the networks of relationships and trust that enable collective action and resource mobilization during crises. Social capital, as the network of relationships, plays a crucial role in managing risks and crisis situations, helping to protect human lives from the negative effects and impacts of disasters (Behera, 2021). In Malaysia, traditional practices and local knowledge have been essential in helping communities cope with recurring floods. For instance, communities on the East Coast have developed adaptive strategies such as owning boats and preparing for seasonal floods, reflecting a form of socio-ecological resilience.

This literature highlights the importance of integrating local knowledge and social capital into formal flood disaster risk reduction policies to enhance resilience and reduce the potential for social disruption. Comparative studies of disaster-induced disruption in various countries, such as 2005 Hurricane Katrina in the U.S. (Powers, 2024), and the 2010 floods in Pakistan (Waseem & Rana, 2023), offer valuable insights into the broader social and sociological impacts of such disasters. In both cases, the floods disaster caused significant physical damage while also highlighting pre-existing social inequalities that exacerbated disruption. Vulnerable populations, particularly the poor and marginalized, were disproportionately affected in terms of material loss and social fragmentation, can limiting their ability to financially prepare, respond to, and recover from a flood (Hinojos et al., 2023). Similarly, the 2014 flood in Malaysia revealed underlying social vulnerabilities, especially among rural communities that lacked adequate access to resources and support systems during the recovery process. These case studies illustrate that while the immediate impact of floods is physical, the long-term consequences often revolve around the disruption of social networks, loss of livelihoods, and the challenge of rebuilding community cohesion. This body of work supports the view that disasters like the 2014 flood should be analysed not only in terms of physical damage but also through a sociological lens that considers the far-reaching consequences for social systems.

METHODS

Data collection

This qualitative study employs a case study design aimed at understanding the social disruption and reestablishment of equilibrium in communities impacted by the 2014 flood disaster. A case study approach is well-suited for examining specific systems, like events or individuals, through in-depth data collection (Ngulube, 2022). This method enables detailed analysis and is frequently applied in disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, and law (Helen, 2020). It is especially useful for addressing “how” and “why” questions related to a phenomenon, with the goal of gaining comprehensive insights and developing new theories (Coombs, 2022). Primary data were gathered through two methods; in-depth interviews and non-participant observation. In-depth interviews through semi-structured questions allowed for detailed exploration of the lived experiences of community members. Semi-structured interviews, noted for the flexibility in examining central topics (Magaldi & Berler, 2020), were selected as the primary method. An interview guide provided consistency, while still allowing in-depth exploration. Fifteen informants, aged 16 to 60, from three villages were purposively chosen based on their willingness to discuss their experiences of the 2014 flood. Each participant was interviewed at least twice, with sessions lasting between one to two hours. All interviews were recorded and manually transcribed, facilitating deductive coding to identify key themes. Meanwhile, non-participant observation provided additional context to the social dynamics in these flood-affected areas. Non-participant observation provided valuable insights into contextual factors affecting knowledge sharing and evidence application (Eldh et al., 2020). Using an observation checklist, behaviors and situations were systematically documented without direct interaction, allowing the researcher to gain a deeper understanding of the community’s disaster response. Secondary data were collected from various sources, including flood-related books, reports, newspapers, and magazines, to enrich the analysis and provide a broader understanding of the social changes caused by the disaster like floods.

Sampling Procedure

Nyimbili and Nyimbili (2024) state that purposive sampling is commonly employed in research because it effectively selects a high-quality sample, reducing bias and improving the reliability of the results. A purposive sampling strategy was employed to select 15 informants, aged between 16 and 70, who had direct experiences of the 2014 flood. Fieldwork was conducted in 2016, two years after the flood disaster, which allowed the study to capture both the immediate and long-term social adaptations, once they recover from the social disruption caused by the disaster. Informants were chosen based on their ability to provide diverse perspectives on the social disruption and subsequent recovery within their communities. Care was taken to ensure diversity in terms of gender, socioeconomic background, and occupation to reflect the different ways the flood impacted various community members. Ethical protocols were strictly followed, with informed consent obtained from all participants prior to the interviews. Each in-depth interview was conducted in at least two sessions, with each session lasting a minimum of 20 minutes, allowing for a deep engagement with the informants’ experiences.

Data Analysis

Interview and observation data were examined through thematic analysis, a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting themes within qualitative data (Jnanathapaswi, 2021). This approach is valuable for detecting patterns that answer research questions, and it offers flexibility across different research frameworks. Thematic analysis is especially effective in uncovering both obvious and underlying meanings, making it well-suited for investigating intricate themes in disaster preparedness, response, and resilience (Braun & Clarke, 2022). In this study, data analysis was conducted simultaneously using thematic analysis to identify patterns in social disruption, community resilience, and the reestablishment of equilibrium. This approach enabled the researcher to interpret the complex social processes and relationships that emerged during and after the disaster. The thematic analysis was performed manually, without the use any of software, ensuring a close engagement with the data. Findings were presented in descriptive narratives, supported by visual aids such as diagrams, charts, and tables, to effectively highlight the key insights into how social systems recovered and regained balance post-flood.

Study Area

The research was conducted in three villages in Hulu Dungun: Pasir Raja Village, Kuala Jengai Village, and Kampung Minda Village. These villages were among the most severely affected by the 2014 flood, with approximately 80% of homes submerged due to the overflowing Dungun River. The geographic context of the area, marked by its proximity to multiple water sources including the South China Sea, rivers, and waterfalls, heightened the communities’ vulnerability to flooding. This location-based vulnerability is critical to understanding the disruption and resilience of the social systems in these villages, which are situated near Tenggol Island, Tanjung Jara Beach, Lata Chemerong Waterfall, and other water-related landmarks.

RESULTS

The 2014 flood disaster in Hulu Dungun caused significant social disruption, impacting various aspects of life for the victims. These disruptions led to a breakdown in the equilibrium of social systems. The following sections highlight key areas where the social systems experienced unstable because of flooding.

Disruption of Livelihood Activities

Livelihood activities were profoundly affected by the flood, destabilizing the economic foundation of both victims and their communities. A 43-year-old male victim, who owned a motorcycle workshop, reported substantial financial losses due to the destruction of his business. This disruption not only impacted his personal income but also had broader social implications, as his role as a service provider in the community was temporarily lost. The inability to continue his livelihood represents a breakdown in the occupational role structures within the community, leading to economic instability.

“…After my home and motor workshop were destroyed, I lost almost RM20,000. Where do you want to find money? The tools of the workshop are all broken. If I want to reopen the workshop, I have to find more capital. If there is another flood, I don’t want to lose anymore. I have to find a suitable place to reopen the workshop…”

This disruption in livelihood also created an imbalance in the social system, as it forced individuals into vulnerable positions, such as incurring debt or relying on external assistance. The flood effectively altered the socio-economic network of the community, where previously self-sufficient members now found themselves dependent on others. For example, a 56-year-old female victim highlighted how her household’s savings were depleted, forcing her husband into debt to repair essential items like their car and motorcycle. This shift represents not just a financial burden but a disturbance in the household’s social standing and self-reliance within the community.

“…I don’t even work. My husband did not work after the flood. The car and motorcycle were all damaged. At that time, the savings were used up to repair the house. My husband had to borrow some money from his friends to repair his car and motorcycle. At that time, I had to spend a lot of money, my children needed to go to school, I needed to fix my car, and I had to buy kitchen items too…”

The financial strains caused by these disruptions also influenced social dynamics, as families had to reprioritize basic needs such as their children’s education and household provisions. The equilibrium of the family structure was disrupted as roles and responsibilities shifted in response to new challenges, creating a ripple effect across the broader community.

Changes to Social Routines

The 2014 flood disaster led to significant disruptions in social routines, particularly in the residents’ daily use of essential services like electricity and clean water. These disruptions illustrate how deeply entrenched routines are crucial to maintaining social order and equilibrium. The sudden interruption of such routines not only affected the physical infrastructure but also disrupted the social fabric of the community. One of the flood victims, a 24-year-old woman, described how the prolonged disruption of electricity altered daily life. The loss of power, she explained, caused cascading problems, from rotting food to the inability to complete household chores, which interfered with the normal rhythm of social life.

“…It’s also difficult for us when there is no electricity, all the work is not done… Fortunately, the weather is not very hot during the rainy season. I can’t even watch television. Fish, meat, vegetables and everything else in our fridge went rotten…”

This disruption exemplifies the interdependency between physical infrastructure and social routines. The equilibrium of the social system in this context relies heavily on the continuity of services. Once these services are disrupted, social systems fall into disequilibrium, and individuals experience stress in maintaining their social roles and routines. Similarly, the interruption of the clean water supply exacerbated the disruption to daily social routines. A 47-year-old woman described how the absence of clean water made it difficult to carry out basic activities essential for health and hygiene.

“…During the flood that day we had to carry water to use for the day. It’s also difficult on days like that because clean water is one of the people’s needs…”

The disruption of access to clean water further demonstrates the fragile nature of social systems, where equilibrium depends on the smooth functioning of basic services. When these are compromised, the social structure falters, affecting the community’s ability to perform everyday tasks, maintain hygiene, and fulfil religious obligations like ablution. The results reveal how deeply interconnected social systems are with infrastructure and routine practices. The disruptions caused by the 2014 flood highlight the vulnerability of these systems to external shocks and their reliance on certain conditions for equilibrium. The social routines disrupted by the flood—such as access to electricity and clean water—underscore the concept of equilibrium in social systems. The interruption of these essential services not only caused inconvenience but also disrupted the community’s ability to maintain social cohesion and fulfil individual and collective roles. This disturbance led to a temporary disequilibrium, which in turn had both short-term and long-term effects on the social fabric.

Physical Health Problems and Social Disruption

The physical health problems experienced by flood victims represent a significant disruption to the equilibrium of the social system in Hulu Dungun following the 2014 flood. The widespread contamination of water sources led to various health complications, such as skin conditions and waterborne diseases, which not only affected individuals but also disrupted their roles within the community and their families. For example, a 26-year-old female victim reported experiencing skin irritation after cleaning her house post-flood. This physical discomfort reflects more than just a health issue; it illustrates how the contamination of floodwater by feces, chemicals, and waste posed broader risks to public health and disrupted daily activities:

“… After the flood, my feet and hands were itchy after I cleaned the house and the areas around here. Yes, this flood water is already contaminated with all kinds of dirty things. Dead animals, garbage, excrement, chemicals, everything is there. It’s been stagnant for a long time, there are a lot of mosquitoes…”

In this instance, the inability to maintain a safe, clean-living environment shows how the social system’s equilibrium was disturbed. The health consequences made it harder for families to recover, exacerbating feelings of vulnerability and highlighting systemic issues in public health preparedness.

Similarly, a 43-year-old male victim explained how he contracted cholera after frequently eating outside, given the lack of clean water for cooking at home. His account demonstrates that the health infrastructure was unable to cope with the disaster, leading to disruptions in food security and hygiene:

“…My family and I always go out to eat. We can’t cook. I think it’s safer to eat outside than at home because the water is dirty to cook. My luck is bad when I have a stomach ache, have diarrhoea until my face turns pale at that time because I often defecate. Ouch, I’m really sick, so from now I have to be careful about the diseases after the flood…”

This example shows how individual health problems can have cascading effects, disrupting not only personal well-being but also family dynamics and community functioning. When health issues such as cholera, diarrhoea, and other waterborne diseases emerge, they limit victims’ ability to resume normal roles in the family and community, creating long-term strains on the social fabric. In sociological terms, these physical health challenges highlight how disasters like floods disrupt the equilibrium of the social system. Public health crises strain both individual capacities and collective resources, forcing communities to adapt to new challenges while trying to restore their pre-disaster social roles and functions.

Emotional Disorder and Social Disequilibrium

The study revealed that the 2014 flood in Hulu Dungun not only caused physical and material losses but also led to significant emotional disorders among victims, disrupting the emotional equilibrium within families and communities. Trauma, as an emotional disorder, affects the psychological balance of individuals and social systems, creating disequilibrium. If left unaddressed, trauma can spread its disruptive effects across multiple layers of society, affecting individual well-being, family dynamics, and community resilience. For example, a 48-year-old female victim shared her experience of extreme distress while navigating through the flood with her children. She expressed the trauma that resulted from this experience, which persists even years after the event:

“…At that time, I was leading the children and had to carry the baby as well. Then, take the children together to wade through the flood waters. Feeling very afraid at that time, afraid of being swept away by the strong current. It is difficult to walk in the deep flood water with many children. That experience became a trauma until now…”

Her account illustrates how personal emotional trauma translates into a disruption of social roles, as fear and anxiety persist, impacting her ability to reintegrate into normal social activities. This highlights the intersection between individual trauma and broader social disruption, where the inability to restore emotional equilibrium contributes to a wider community-level unstability. Additionally, the flood left profound emotional scars, especially for vulnerable groups such as single mothers, 47-year-old single mother reported the challenges she faced, which exacerbated her emotional strain, leading to psychological disequilibrium:

“…As a single mother, I have to do all the work myself. Needless to say, I was very stressed. I want to expect help from my children, they are still small. There is no time to save everything. At that time, I can only take what I can, anything I can’t save, I have to leave. I’m just satisfied the kids are safe, that’s enough…”

Emotional distress, caused by the overwhelming responsibility during the flood, exemplifies how the disruption of normal family roles and support systems creates psychological and social instability. This reflects a larger issue where individuals in fragile positions—like single mothers—experience intensified emotional disruption, which reverberates throughout their social networks. These emotional disorders are not isolated incidents; they contribute to a ripple effect of social disruption. When individuals struggle with emotional recovery, it hinders the restoration of social equilibrium, delaying collective community recovery. Therefore, emotional trauma is not only a psychological issue but also a key factor in understanding the sociological disequilibrium that follows disaster events like the 2014 flood disaster.

DISCUSSION

The 2014 flood caused extensive damage, leading to RM2.85 billion in losses, 25 fatalities, and affecting 500,000 people (Khrab et al., 2022). These figures highlight the widespread impact on at-risk communities, particularly those residing in flood-prone areas, who rely on local natural resources for their livelihoods. The physical destruction caused by the flood—including damage to homes, infrastructure, crops, and livestock—had a profound effect on these communities. However, the more significant consequence lies in the disruption of social systems and the resulting disequilibrium, which manifests in various forms: social, economic, and emotional instability.

The disruption of livelihood activities is a key aspect of unstable situation. Many victims, especially those dependent on specific sectors like fishing, were forced to seek alternative means of income, often in temporary, low-wage jobs (Wagner et al., 2022). This shift in livelihood is not merely an economic hardship but reflects a broader disturbance in the social equilibrium, as individuals and families struggle to maintain their pre-disaster routines and stability. This economic disruption, compounded by social vulnerabilities, exposes the fragile balance within these communities, as they rely on both formal and informal social networks for survival. Research indicates that economic factors have a substantial impact on community resilience following disasters. Ao et al. (2020) found that economic aspects of resilience are vital in shaping how communities in Sichuan, China, respond to disasters. Additionally, Glago (2021) highlights that communities frequently need to adapt their economic activities for survival.

Furthermore, the disruption of social routines due to the lack of essential services such as clean water and electricity contributed to further instability. The victims’ inability to return to their pre-flood “normal” underscores the sociological concept of social disequilibrium. As these communities faced the physical and emotional tolls of the disaster, their social structures were thrown into a state of flux, illustrating the inherent vulnerability of social systems in the face of environmental shocks. The restoration of social equilibrium, therefore, becomes a critical aspect of recovery, requiring timely interventions to reestablish a sense of normalcy and stability. The success of community building after the disaster relies on the community’s existing knowledge, skills, and everyday routines of the community before the disaster (Bixler et al., 2021).

The health impacts following a flood disaster reveal how disruptions to social balance extend into physical and mental well-being. Floods often bring an increased risk of waterborne diseases due to contaminated water sources, stagnant pools, and limited sanitation facilities. Mensah and Ahadzie (2020) emphasize that these flood-borne diseases add another layer of vulnerability, weakening individuals’ physical resilience and increasing the spread of infections among community members. Moreover, during and after the flood, access to healthcare is often severely restricted, either because medical facilities are overwhelmed, damaged, or inaccessible. This lack of adequate healthcare exacerbates the community’s suffering, as individuals are not only dealing with physical illnesses like infections and respiratory issues but also the mental strain and trauma associated with the disaster’s impact. The psychological toll—feelings of fear, loss, anxiety, and stress—can be just as debilitating as physical ailments, particularly when support systems are strained or unavailable.

On an emotional level, the trauma experienced by victims—both individually and collectively—further destabilized social systems. The varying degrees of emotional recovery, influenced by factors such as previous flood experiences, mental health history, and the availability of social support, demonstrate the layered nature of social vulnerability. Twiddy’s study affirms that the psychological toll of disasters, including trauma and stress, can disrupt mental health and social relationships (Twiddy, Trump & Ramsden, 2022), leading to a decline in community cohesion and social functionality. This collective trauma, when unresolved, can hinder the restoration of social equilibrium and slow down recovery processes. Nazaruddin (2024) suggests that religion and mental health are often linked to resilience in disaster recovery.

The flood’s disruption of social functionality also has broader implications for community safety and well-being. Vulnerable groups, including those with physical or psychological disabilities, faced heightened risks, as their ability to adapt and recover was severely compromised (Petrucci, 2022). The disturbance to the social equilibrium underscores the need for a sociological understanding of resilience, particularly in how communities can restore balance in the wake of such disruptions. Social resilience, therefore, becomes a critical framework for addressing these vulnerabilities, ensuring that communities can recover and reestablish stability.

The discussion underscores the importance of understanding the social systems affected by the 2014 flood disaster, focusing not just on physical losses but also on broader social disruption and equilibrium. Analyzing these social systems involves examining how relationships and community structures were altered by the flood, which can lead to diminished social cohesion and trust among members. The concept of equilibrium refers to the balance of roles and relationships that contribute to a community’s well-being, which can be disrupted by disasters, resulting in long-term vulnerabilities. Information about social resilience is essential for decision-makers in disaster planning and response. By recognizing specific social dynamics and vulnerabilities, policymakers can create targeted strategies that address both immediate needs issues.

Moreover, the 2014 flood, which devastated low-lying and upstream communities, forced prolonged relocations, severely disrupting local social systems. These disruptions not only caused physical damage to homes and infrastructure but also triggered significant socio-economic and health challenges, heightening residents’ vulnerabilities to future risks. The breakdown of social networks, loss of livelihoods, and the strain on public health systems exacerbated the effects of the disaster, leaving many individuals without access to essential services or support.

One of the key findings from this study is the critical role that collective and structured actions by both authorities and affected communities play in restoring livelihoods and addressing the aftermath of such disasters. Recovery efforts cannot solely focus on the physical rebuilding of infrastructure; they must also prioritize the restoration of community life and the re-establishment of essential social and economic systems. For example, local authorities can coordinate with community organizations to provide targeted financial support, such as compensation for lost income, as well as mental health services for those suffering from the social and psychological effects of the disaster. In addition, recovery plans must ensure access to education, healthcare, and other services, which are crucial for helping communities regain their footing and rebuild their lives. In many cases, community-driven efforts have been shown to be highly effective in accelerating recovery. For instance, local leadership, supported by volunteers and community groups, can facilitate the rebuilding of social structures and help restore trust. These efforts may include organizing community meetings to discuss recovery strategies, setting up informal support networks, or providing local work opportunities to help people earn an income while rebuilding their communities. The resilience of a community can often be strengthened through grassroots efforts, as people come together to support each other in ways that government programs alone cannot.

In terms of effective disaster management strategies, examples from both Malaysia and other countries highlight the importance of a multifaceted approach. In Malaysia, the National Disaster Management Agency (NADMA) plays a key role in coordinating disaster response, but the involvement of local governments and communities has proven essential. For example, in the aftermath of the 2014 flood, local community leaders and residents worked together to organize relief efforts, distribute aid, and rebuild infrastructure, underscoring the importance of a bottom-up approach to recovery. Similarly, the Community Resilience Programme in Malaysia has focused on building community preparedness and response capacity, helping vulnerable communities adapt to future flooding events. Internationally, Japan’s approach to disaster management offers valuable insights. The country’s emphasis on disaster preparedness and community engagement has been recognized globally for its effectiveness. Local governments and communities work together to ensure that recovery efforts are swift and holistic, addressing not only physical damages but also social needs such as mental health support and livelihood restoration. In the wake of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, for example, community-driven recovery efforts prioritized restoring social cohesion through neighborhood gatherings, public spaces, and mutual support systems, which were essential in overcoming the psychological impacts of the disaster.

Overall, the equilibrium of social systems disrupted by the 2014 flood disaster is gradually restored through collective and structured actions that involve both governmental agencies and affected communities. These actions are essential not only in restoring livelihoods and addressing health problems but also in reinforcing social cohesion, trust, and community resilience. By integrating both top-down and bottom-up strategies, recovery efforts can ensure a more holistic and sustainable recovery. Drawing on lessons from both Malaysia and international examples, it is clear that effective disaster management requires a comprehensive approach that prioritizes physical, social, and economic recovery. Future disaster management frameworks should build upon these insights, integrating the experiences and needs of affected communities to foster long-term resilience and adaptability in the face of future disasters.

CONCLUSION

The 2014 flood, which reached unprecedented levels of severity, forced communities in vulnerable low-lying and upstream areas to relocate for extended periods. This prolonged displacement severely disrupted local social systems, leading to significant consequences for the social fabric of affected communities. The destruction of homes, livelihoods, and infrastructure compounded the immediate challenges faced by residents, leading to severe socio-economic and health issues that exacerbated existing vulnerabilities. These disruptions created a ripple effect across the community, undermining established social structures such as family networks, local leadership, and community organizations. Qualitative data gathered from affected individuals indicate that these disruptions significantly heightened the social vulnerability of residents, leaving them more exposed to future risks and crises. The loss of social cohesion, particularly the breakdown of mutual support systems, has left many individuals isolated and without the social capital that previously helped them cope with adversity. Furthermore, the flood event created a deep sense of insecurity, with individuals expressing concern over their ability to recover and adapt to future disasters without the social networks that had been disrupted.

This study suggests that effective disaster management strategies must not only address the immediate physical and economic impacts of such disasters but also the profound social consequences that follow. Our findings indicate that disaster recovery efforts should be multi-faceted, including measures that support the rebuilding of social networks, the restoration of trust, and the promotion of social adaptation. While formal governance structures, such as government agencies and non-governmental organizations, play an essential role in providing resources and support, community-driven initiatives were also crucial in re-establishing a sense of normalcy. Community members often took the lead in organizing relief efforts, offering mutual support, and rebuilding local infrastructure, which helped to restore a sense of belonging and social stability. Importantly, our research highlights that resilience and social adaptation in the wake of a disaster are not solely about physical recovery but also about the collective actions that restore social order. These efforts can include community dialogues, local leadership development, and social support programs aimed at reinforcing norms of reciprocity, solidarity, and trust. Such initiatives are essential for helping communities recover their social equilibrium, reduce long-term vulnerabilities, and build a more resilient social system that can better withstand future disasters.

In conclusion, this study underscores the importance of incorporating social dimensions into disaster management strategies. The equilibrium of social systems, once disrupted by the 2014 flood disaster, was gradually restored through a combination of collective actions from both authorities and affected communities. This process of recovery demonstrates the crucial role of social support, collective resilience, and community-driven efforts in fostering an adaptable, resilient social system. Future research should explore how disaster management frameworks can be adapted to further prioritize these social factors, ensuring that communities not only recover but also thrive in the face of future environmental challenges. Addressing social disruption is therefore not just an aspect of recovery but a key element of creating a disaster-resilient society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to thank all the participant for this study.

Competing Interest

The authors declare no competing interest.

FUNDING

This study was conducted without using any funds from any research grants to date. If there is, we will update and notify later on this section before this article published.

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