Effect of Banditry and Kidnapping on The Development of Selected Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria

Effect of Banditry and Kidnapping on The Development of Selected Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria

Uche Patrick OKOYE, Ph.D  and  Okwukwe NWAKA-NWANDU
Department of Public Administration, School of Business and Management Technology, National Institute of Construction Technology and Management (NICTM), Uromi, Edo State.

 TETFUND RESEARCH SPONSORSHIP MARCH, 2023

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2023.70562

Received: 25 April 2023; Accepted: 10 May 2023; Published: 07 June 2023

ABSTRACT

The effect of banditry and kidnapping on the development of selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria, was investigated in North central Nigeria and eight (8) higher institutions with experience of bandit attack sampled in North central Nigeria which are; Government Science College, Kagara in Rafi local government areas, Niger State, Kwara State University, Malete, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi State Polytechnic, Lokoja, Federal University of Agriculture in Makurdi (FUAM), Benue State, University of Abuja, Plateau State University and Plateau State Polytechnic. A cross sectional research design was used to analyse data collected from three hundred and twenty one (321) survey participants along eight (8) higher institutions in North Central Nigeria, in order to analyse the survey data and draft the final findings, the study made use of descriptive and inferential statistics to analyse the data of the study, the survey responses are graphically and tabular presentations, frequency, Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) were used for pretest, T-statistics and probit regression analysis was used as an inferential tools and results interpreted for finally drafting the research findings. The analysis finds that Banditry and kidnapping has 279.749 Likelihood ratio of effect on the development of tertiary institutions with the corresponding significance value is 0.000, with this we conclude that banditry and kidnapping affect the development of tertiary institutions. The probit analysis of 144.617 (0.000) and t-statistics also shows that banditry and kidnapping activities has a significant negative effect on educational activities in North central Nigeria and educational activities has a very low tolerance for banditry and kidnapping activities. The study therefore recommends that Government should strengthen the security personnel by equipping them with sophisticated weapons, communication gadgets and logistics to enable them confront the bandits head-on and employing the services of Local vigilante, who possess relevant knowledge of the terrain of the vast ungoverned forest, into the security network to get into the nooks and crannies of the area to flush out these bandits. An enabling environment should be created by the government for the youth to be gainfully employed as well.

Key words: Banditry, Kidnapping, Development Tertiary Institutions

INTRODUCTION

Education is the light every individual needed to move to the next stage in the journey of life. Education helps to give direction, create opportunity and place you in good position in life. The only different between the bank gate man and the bank managing director is education. We all want to be in good position in life and one of the vital requirements is education. The foundation of education of students has a long way and role to play in different students’ performance in school.

However, with the increasing nature of terrorism, armed robbery, banditry, kidnapping, in Nigeria which constitute a devastating threat to security of life of students makes it challenging in achieving the purpose of literacy education for young ones.

According to section 14 (2) (b) of the Federal Republic of Nigeria’s constitution, the welfare and security of the populace must be the state’s primary goals. The security and well-being of the people are jointly stated as the only goals in this declaration (Okeke, 2022). Every requirement is present when one desires to grasp security. All people, both governmental and non-governmental, are excessively concerned about security (Akpan, 2017). The need for security becomes a vital issue of political thought and action in a world of perceived improbability and danger. It channels a broad yearning for more dependability, stability, and tangibleness in the face of the terrifying forces of unpredictability, rapid transformation, and complexity. Ironically, however, there is no consensus on what the phrase “security” means, and it does not lend itself to any prognosis. Instead, it delineates the boundaries of a hotly contested terrain (Boemcken and Schetter, n.d.). “Security is regarded as a state in which citizens are free from any dangers to their lives and means of subsistence, free from bodily damage, diseases, unemployment, and human rights violations wherever they may be found inside a sovereign nation” (Ndubuisi-Okolo Anigbuogu, 2019, p. 8). In order to foster sustainable human development and to advance regional, national, and international peace and stability, security might be viewed as a “public good” (Hussein, Gnisci and Wanjiru, 2004:11).

According to the United Nations Development Programme (1994), security is defined as protection from covert and harmful interruptions of daily operations at homes, workplaces, communities, etc. The realism school views security in terms of warfare, recommending various military measures to counteract security concerns (Akpan, 2017). According to the “human security” perspective, threats and challenges to security go beyond law and order and national defence to include all political, economic, and social concerns that provide a life free from danger. The state has lost importance in favour of individual security. However, these two things are not incompatible (Hussein, Gnisci and Wanjiru, 2004:11). The military’s emphasis on security changed after the Cold War from several angles. There have been many viewpoints on security, especially at the personal level (Olurode, 2013; Bawa, 2013).

The human security approach has also made it clear that any effort to address security-related issues must be based on consultation and collaboration with various sets of actors, many of whom frequently have conflicting interests, such as civilians and soldiers, government officials and non-governmental organisations, local, national, and international actors. Despite this consensus, it has been challenging for international actors to agree on a single authoritative definition of security that enables the international community to effectively address a variety of challenges and threats, such as violent conflict, crime, emancipation, economic hardship, and environmental degradation (Hussein, Gnisci and Wanjiru, 2004:11).

Nigeria’s security condition seems elusive and insurmountable. The ongoing security threat in every state in the nation has yet to be adequately addressed by the government at all levels. The government’s security system cannot ensure safety and security in Nigeria due to ongoing security issues, which raises doubts about whether security can be guaranteed there (Oyeyemi, 2019). Nigeria has had its fair share of instability brought on by a variety of factors, including civil war, insurgency, violent religious crises that reoccur frequently, militancy caused by poverty and ethnic divisions, as well as crises brought on by calls for self-determination. Therefore, it is clear from Nigeria’s history over the past five to six decades that security continues to dominate the public conversation (Adediran, 2018).

According to Oyeyemi (2019). Nigeria’s insecurity problem may resemble that of the early 1980s economic crisis brought on by the decline in commodity prices. Price hikes from OPEC, privatisation, economic emancipation, deregulation, currency depreciation, the Cold War, politics, and the Structural Adjustment Program (SAP). The rise of Boko-Haram in the states of Borno and Yobe. The gang then became a menace to Nigeria and other nearby countries because of its criminality and terrorist actions; the height of this is insurgency, banditry, and kidnapping. A country’s ability to survive depends heavily on its level of security. Without sufficient protection for people and property, the system will be plagued by anarchy, turmoil, and eventual collapse. This is why a state’s ability to defend against threats to its fundamental interests and values is considered a key component of security, which is a dynamic condition (Omede, 2011, p. 92). States have several different concerns when it comes to security. It could be cultural, ideological, economic, or military.

However, the contemporary understanding of security goes beyond the actual physical defence of a region through military action, emphasising the supply of a higher standard of living and the encouragement of sustainable growth. This means that a greater level of living can be achieved through, among other things, ensuring health, and economic, human, physical, environmental, and food security (Bello, 2011: 60). The stakes have increased as a result of developments both globally and locally in Nigeria over the past few decades. Domestic violence caused by chieftaincy disputes is on the rise. Cases of sophisticated armed robberies, kidnappings motivated by money, persistent oil bunkering, sea piracy, killings committed by rival cults, and ritual-related murders and killings are also on the rise in Nigeria due to the new threats of terrorism, banditry, insurgency, and farmers-herders conflict.

The increasing nature of terrorism, armed robbery, kidnapping, corruption and ethnic crisis etc in Nigeria constitute a devastating threat to security of life and property. Lack of security of lives and property of the citizenry is a severe hindrance to meaningful development. A climate of fear will frighten domestic and foreign investors. At the heart of many of these conflicts is access to resources and control over the distribution of benefits, (Obi, Usman and Adegbe, 2020).  This struggle for resources has led to a broad sense of insecurity, opportunism, and the pursuit of self- help strategies across the country. Some of the causes of violence include godfatherism, poverty, unemployment, money and politics, corruption, small and light arms proliferation, the rise of armed groups, religious based violence and election fraud. These issues represent dividing lines in communities such as Anyigba, Ajaokuta, Ankpa, Geregu Okene road, Okene, Itobe, Olowa, Omi among others that have led to heightened tensions between and within groups (Egwu, 2006).

           The incidence of June 17^th 2011 bombing of the Nigeria Police Force Headquarters as well as August 27^th 2011 bombing of United Nations building in Abuja has been seen by many as a daring assault not only on the nation’s intelligence but as a pointer to the fact that no one is safe. The general state of insecurity in Nigeria presently lends credence to the report that kidnapping is an offshoot of the Niger Delta crises. This insurgency has thrown a huge cloak of insecurity not just over the entire south-south geopolitical zone, but also the south east, and south west. Kidnapping gangs then made the two zones their haven, (Isyaku and Obi, 2017). No person is spared in this new wave of kidnapping crime that seems to have supplanted armed robbery, and other non-contact crimes, kidnapping has equally spread to other parts of Nigeria. For instance; North East, North West and North central However, the security challenge this poses to the state of Nigeria is better understood against existing evidence that even government officials and traditional rulers are not spared. This has led to some of these officials relocating their families outside the geopolitical zone or outside the country. What the current trend of violence is imprinting on the psyche of Nigerians is that the government security apparatus is incapable of guaranteeing the safety and security of its people. This would, therefore, impact on the human security of the people as the situation promotes fear, while at the same time limiting the peoples’ ability to develop economically. The state’s capacity to attract investors becomes limited as a result of the insecurity (Okolo, 2009).

            However, as a result of the prevalent manifestations of insecurity, crime, and criminalities in Nigeria, kidnapping has taken on a new wave, ravaging the country, particularly the Niger Delta region. The kidnapping incident has harmed Nigeria’s image as a nation abroad, as well as its efforts to develop a viable tourism industry, as visitors are regularly warned by their home countries to be wary of visiting Nigeria. Many would-be investors have also stayed away for fear of being kidnapped (Ekpe, 2009). In 1999/2000, a kidnapping operation in Niger Delta began in Oboro community, where three (3) expatriates staff of Shell Petroleum Company were kidnapped, two (2) Indian nationals working with ANCOG Construction Company at Ughelle, Delta state, were kidnapped, and a Greek national was held captive near Brutu, Delta state. Ijaw youths seized a helicopter belonging to one of the oil companies, along with its crew, in protest of the company’s neglect of their welfare (Ibaba, 2008).

Kidnapping, banditry, farmer-herdsmen conflict, cultism, and political thuggery are the four major forms of insecurity in Kogi, Nassarawa, Plateau, Benue Niger, and Abuja-FCT. Nonetheless, kidnapping/bandiatry is the primary focus of this research because it has an impact on educational development in the study areas.

The insecurity of citizens’ lives and property is a significant impediment to meaningful development. Insecurity, which has resulted in numerous crises such as farmers-herders conflict, kidnapping, and banditry, amongst others, poses a devastating threat to the security of citizens’ lives and property. Domestic and foreign investors will be scared in a fearful environment. Many of these conflicts revolve around access to resources and control over the distribution of benefits (Obi, Usman, and Adegbe, 2020).  This struggle for resources has resulted in widespread insecurity, opportunism, and the pursuit of self-help strategies across the country. Some of the causes of violence include godfatherism, poverty, unemployment, money and politics, corruption, small and light arms proliferation, the rise of armed groups, religious-based violence, and election fraud. These issues are dividing lines in states such as Plateau, Kogi, Niger, Nasarawa, Benue, and Abuja Federal Capital Territory (Obi, 2017).

The emergence of banditry/kіdnаppіng іnsurgency hаs іntroduced а dаngerοus dіmensіοn hіthertο unknοwn іntο the crіmіnаl spаce іn Nіgerіа. The sect has cаrrеd ut serеs f bmbngs, as well as tаkng hstаge f nncent ctzens (bujа Kаdunа Rаl kdnаp). North Central Nigeria, one of Nigeria’s six geopolitical zones, is not immune to insecurity, with herders and farmers conflict, banditry, and kidnapping being the four major forms of insecurity in these zones’ higher education institutions. Nonetheless, the impact of banditry/kidnapping on higher education institutions is the primary focus of this research because it affects socioeconomic development.

It is inescapable that the ecnmc mpаcts of nsecurty will be felt more in unsphstcаted mnculturаl lw ncme еcnmеs than in highly аdvаnced dversfеd ndustrаl еcnmеs. Because of the cnsequences of bаndtry аnd kdnаppng, the phenmenn is lаbeled аs а scаl prоblеm upn whch cllectve scаl аctn shuld be tаken t аddress ts cаuses аnd cnsequences. Therefre, the continued rse n bаndtry аnd kdnаppng аctvtes n the country, if not checked, mаy result n greаter nvestr аpаthy frоm the country аnd resultng n lw nflw f Fregn Dеrесt nvestment аnd wuld mаkе the nsttutnаl nvestrs lооk frоm thеr stаble еcnmеs t nvest thеr mеnt. Οn the stаte οf the cοuntry, when peοple feel іnsecure, theіr аppetіte tο іnvest, tο buy οr rent frοm the prοduct οf іnvestment reduces аnd thаt іs why аll οver the wοrld, аny cοuntry thаt rаdіаtes аn envіrοnment οf іnsecurіty nаturаlly repels іnvestment іnіtіаtіves frοm bοth the іnternаtіοnаl cοmmunіty аnd іts οwn lοcаl іnvestοrs.

Hence, bаndіtry аnd kіdnаppіng іs а threаt tο the educational, ecοnοmіc, pοlіtіcаl аnd sοcіаl securіty οf Nіgerіа аnd а mаjοr fаctοr аssοcіаted wіth underdevelοpment becаuse іt dіscοurаges bοth lοcаl аnd fοreіgn іnvestment, reduces the quаlіty οf lіfe, destrοys humаn аnd sοcіаl cаpіtаl, dаmаges relаtіοnshіp between cіtіzens аnd the stаte, thrοugh undermіnіng demοcrаcy, rule οf lаw аnd the аbіlіty οf the cοuntry tο prοmοte develοpment (Аdebаyο, 2013). Thіs іs why Rοurke (2008, аs cіted іn Οlаdіmejі аnd Οlusegun, 2012) pοsіt thаt wаr, terrοrіsm аnd οther fοrms οf trаnsnаtіοnаl pοlіtіcаl vіοlence аre іn mаny wаys mοre threаtenіng thаn ever befοre аs cіvіlіаn cаsuаlty hаs been οn the іncreаse. Іt іs οn thіs nοte thаt the study exаmіne effect of banditry and kidnapping on the development of selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria

STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM/JUSTIFICATION

Insecurity is present in our species from ancient past; there is evidence in order to satisfy such a single need as hunger. In Nigeria for example, banditry and kidnapping has spread all over the country’s six geo-political zones. According to research conducted by Iyorwuese (2013), Obi, etal (2018) and Usman, etal (2020) banditry, kidnapping and farmers’-herdsmen conflict have continued to affect socio-economic activities and food security necessary for sustainability and national integration and the high propensity of damages is alarming in states like Kaduna, Plateau, Kogi, Niger, Nasarawa, Benue and Abuja, Federal Capital Territory.

The multiplier implication of banditry and kidnapping is that, it has resulted in the retarded growth and development of education vis-à-vis tertiary institutions in Northern Nigeria. Banditry and kidnapping is an ill wind which blows no one any good. Nigerian society has now been characterized and manifested in kidnapping that has become wide spread, promoting a climate of fear, impunity and insecurity in the country. Furthermore, the political unrest has worsened the internal security situation in Nigeria and also imbibed the spirit of fear in the heart of Nigerians as it has witnessed incessant cases of farmers-herdsmen attack in many states across the country. These attacks are increasingly becoming wide spread and promoting a climate of fear, impunity and insecurity in the country thus affecting the development of tertiary institutions, food security and socio-economic development.

Peace makes all things possible and without it life will be meaningless. Institutions of higher learning in Nigeria and globally have been faced with many challenges in the course of their duties. The most serious challenge facing them is insecurity which seems not to be ending in the near future in higher institutions due to the emergence of banditry and kidnapping of students for ransom. Lack of peace brings general destruction, profound insecurity, intimidation and fear which can lead to closure of schools thereby stopping educational activities for as long as a complete session. Nigerian Institutions that have faced insecurity have experienced many setbacks in terms of academic growth and infrastructural destruction.

The four major forms of insecurity in Nigeria are cultism, political thuggery, herders and farmers conflict and kidnapping and Banditry. Nevertheless, kidnapping and Banditry as it affects tertiary institution is the main focus of this research and its impacts on socio-economic development of Northern Nigeria. Initially, those who kidnap people in Nigeria for the sake of obtaining ransom targeted the elite class and their relatives that are dear to them, e.g. the kidnapping of the mother of the former Nigerian Football Federation President, Alhaji Sani Lulu, Hajiya Laraba Abdullahi, who was kidnapped from her palatial home in Idah, Kogi State, at 6:45pm in July, 2010 and taken to an unknown destination. However, the practice of kidnapping has taken another dimension because kidnappers do not only target high profile people but middle class, civil servants, and travelers from other states among others. A case in point; according to Kaduna State Police Command, Gunmen in Nigeria have kidnapped at least 140 schoolchildren in the north-west of the country, between July to December, 2021. Eight people were also abducted from the National Tuberculosis and Leprosy Centre in Zaria. Earlier, two nurses and a 12-month-old child were among those seized. There has been a recent spate of abductions from schools and universities for ransom, (Usman, Obi and Okeme, 2020)

Ibrahim, (2021), reports that there were mass kidnapping from a school near Kaduna city, about 80km (50 miles) south-west of Zaria. Furthermore, the kidnapping of the Kagara school students, a commercial bus, NSTA, belonging to Niger state government was attacked by bandits at Kundu where more than 20 passengers on board were abducted on their way back to Minna while returning from Rijau, in Rijau local government area of the state, (Ibrahim, 2021). In another development, the Chief of Staff to Governor Abubakar Sani Bello of Niger state, Mallam Ibrahim Balarabe on Sunday narrowly escaped being abducted by armed bandits while returning from his hometown in Kagara, Rafi local government area of the state. This upsurge is worrisome as so many victims have been forcefully picked and whisked away to unknown places only for ransom to be placed on them and hard-earned monies are extorted from their families.

AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study is to examine the effect of banditry and kidnapping on the development of selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Specific objectives include:

1. To determine the effect of Banditry and kidnapping on the development of tertiary institutions
2. To investigate the effect of Banditry and kidnapping on academic activities of tertiary institutions
3. To explore the effect of Banditry and Kidnapping on the socio-economic development of host community

Research Hypotheses

1. Banditry and kidnapping do not affect the development of tertiary institutions
2. Banditry and kidnapping have no significant impact on academic activities of tertiary institutions
3. Banditry and kidnapping have no significant effect on the socio-economic development of host community

CONCEPTUAL REVIEW

Causes of Banditry and Kidnapping                                                          

The factors that are responsible for kidnapping from literatures reviewed show the following as some of the causes of kidnapping in Tertiary institutions in the selected areas:

1. Unemployment and poverty: Okolo (2010) states that it is no longer news that unemployment factor in Nigeria is very high leading to criminality. However, according to Nigeria Bureau of statistics unemployment rose to all time from 13% in 2015 to 33.3% in 2022. Nigeria is plagued with socio-economic issues such as widespread corruption, pervasive unemployment, and cybercrime among youths. One prominent factor responsible for this is poverty. To be specific, a puzzling proportion of the Nigerian population lives in extreme poverty. Having recently overtaken India to be the poverty capital of the world, Nigeria has the highest number of poor people on the African continent. As reported by the Nigeria Bureau of Statistics (2021), 82.9 million (i.e., 40.1%) Nigerians live in severe poverty as of 2021, and 4 of every 10 Nigerians live on below $360 annually. The implications of poverty in Nigeria have been extensive with effects on cyber-crime proliferation, unemployment, malnutrition, and hunger. The level of hunger and malnutrition in Nigeria, especially in rural areas, is a source of concern. This is evidenced in the 2020 Global Index Hunger where Nigeria scored 29.2 %, indicating a serious level of hunger. Also, malnutrition is responsible for 45% of all the deaths of children below 5years. About 32% of children under 5 years are stunted, while an estimated two million children suffer from severe acute malnutrition, which is presently the highest in Africa. This is a case of suffering amid plenty, a paradox of poverty amid opulence that requires adequate attention.

            One of the major challenges confronting Nigeria is the high and rising level of poverty. As an illustration, in 2018, the country was ranked as 158th out of 189th countries in terms of human development index (UNDP, 2018). The November Report of 2020 World Poverty (World Poverty Clock, 2020) indicated that 105.5 million people representing 51 per cent of the population in Nigeria lives below income poverty line of US$1.9 a day. Indeed, Brookings Institution Annual Report (2018) classified Nigeria as one the poorest countries in the world above India despite her enormous resources.

                  Every year, Nigerian universities graduate thousands from higher institutions of learning. What have been the efforts of successive administration in Nigeria to create employment opportunities for the youths? Inyang, (2009) states that a graduate who is unable to secure employment is bereft of possible means of economic survival. Thus, the rising rate of banditry and kidnapping in Nigeria was linked to high rate of unemployment in the country. Also, poverty is one of the causative spectrums that lead many people to turn out to be notorious criminals. Poverty is a financial incapacity or state of lack of basic requirements to live a rational life. Basic requirements such as money, food, water, shelter among many others is the scourge of poverty which demoralized the less privileged and many youths in Kogi State to have become disreputable kidnappers, (Adegbe, 2020).

2. Ungoverned Spaces: in the North Crime thrives in remote locations where the presence of government is not registered such that there’s little deterrence and abounding opportunities for criminal activity. Most of the North West communities or households are in some cases separated by, and interspersed with, forest areas. This renders them vulnerable to banditry. This situation is made worse by the absence of effective community policing mechanisms capable of addressing the hinterlands’ peculiar security challenges. The state security machinery has so far failed to tackle the scourge of banditry due to lack of political will, lack of collaborative efforts and operational challenges, (Mungadi, Yusuf, Jeremiah, Owa, Abubakar, Agbo-Madaki, Oyinloye, & Onibiyo, 2020).
3. Arms Proliferation in Exchange for Gold: The international dimension of foreigners exchanging arms for gold evolved many warlords in Zamfara and this further exacerbate the already precarious situation. This development has forced the hands of both state and federal government to evolve a platform of buying off the mined gold from the illegal artisanal miners rather than having it exchanged for arms which further raised the security level of the already fragile region, (Mungadi, et al, 2020).
4. Moral Decadence and the get Rich Quick Syndrome: Again Iyang, (2009) confirmed this in his preposition that in Nigeria, nobody asks questions on how people make their wealth. According to him, a poor person today can show up with an expensive car tomorrow and nobody dare to question the sudden wealth. In Nigeria, many persons have tall dreams especially the youths. How can their tall dreams be achieved? This is the question that burdens their minds and because they want to make it quick, they go about searching for people to kidnap and make much money in return which is barbaric and sinister. This is one of the trending insecurity issues in the country today. Moral standard of dignity in labour have been jettisoned for illegal means of making wealth.
5. Lack of Institutional Capacity Resulting to Government Failure: Fukuyama (2004) described this as the corrosion or breakdown of institutional infrastructures. The foundation of institutional framework in Nigeria is very shaky and have provoked a deterioration of state governance and democratic accountability, thus, paralyzing the existing set of constraints including the formal and legitimate rules vested in the hierarchy of social order. The rise in the rate of banditry and kidnapping in Nigeria is linked to government failure especially between the windows of study, (Usman etal, 2020).
6. Corruption, Unfairness and Persuasive Material Inequalities: Achuba, Ighomereho, Akpan (2013), were of the opinion that the major cause of insecurity in Nigeria in which kidnapping is a good example is the growing awareness of inequalities and disparities in life chances which lead to violent reaction by a large number of people. The gap between the rich and the poor in most of Nigerian societies have driven many youths into kidnapping business. The political leaders in Nigeria have not been fair enough to equally distribute the common wealth of the state, and in addition, corruption in the corridors of power and within the law enforcement agencies sometimes thwarts serious efforts in the prevention of crime like kidnapping.
7. External Influence: Banditry and Kidnapping itself which is a crime which started in the oil rich Niger-Delta region of southern Nigeria in 2005/2006 as a tool for social action and justice because of decades of neglects from federal government of Nigeria has become a habit of crime in Northern Nigeria. The influence of kidnapping activities in Niger Delta region states like, Bayelsa, Rivers, Delta, Cross Rivers, Akwa Ibom, Imo, Edo, Ondo and Abia have had a spill-over effect on the jobless youths and criminals in Niger, Benue, Plateau, Kogi and FCT-Abuja who take it as a new substitute or complement to robbery and pick pocketing. According to Adegbe, (2020), a detained armed robbery and kidnap suspect, who was arrested at a location in an operation between Okene and Akure by anti-kidnapping technical team, led by Assistant commissioner of police, Investigation shows that the suspect is an indigene of Dekina local government area and was trained from Niger-Delta region in the act of robbery and kidnapping and he was responsible for the spate of kidnappings and armed attacks witnessed on major highways in North Central states like Nasarawa, Niger, Kogi, Benue and along the Lokoja, Okene, Akure, Auchi roads (Adegbe, 2020).
8. Influence of Hard Drugs and Alcoholic Intake: Adegbe (2020) linked the upsurge of banditry and kidnapping in Nigeria to high consumption and trafficking of hard drugs. Vigilante commander in Okene also stated that, hard drugs and alcoholic drinks are illicit substances that created irreversible problems such as kidnapping, unnecessary violence, and many other imperil atrocities in Nigeria. Hard drugs and alcohol are toxic substance that affects wide range of body organs and constitute harmful risks to the health especially the brain cavity, yet these substances are consumed by majority of youths in Nigeria which easily drive them into crimes and criminal acts like kidnapping. Hence, the psychoactive effects they produced include sedation, euphoria, mood changes, figment of evil imagination, perceptual and other cognitive distortions with direct effects on motor neuron, thus, a man under the influence of hard drugs or alcohol is susceptible to crime.
9. Proliferation of Arms and military Uniform: Inyang (2009) believed that the proliferation of arms as a result of political patronage of miscreants, who were dumped after elections by the politicians, may indirectly encourage and enhance kidnapping. Some politicians normally employ idle youths as political thugs and provided them with arms and ammunitions during electioneering period. Therefore, after winning or losing election, as the case may be, the politicians abandon the youths and the next strategy by the youths is how to use the weapons or ammunitions in their possession to kidnap innocent citizens and the relatives of those they perceive are wealthy (Iyang and Ubong, 2013). More so, that some of the thugs use fake army uniform as a camouflage to deceive unsuspecting victims pretending as if they are real army officers before carrying out their notorious activities.
10. Role of security agents in ransom payment: the involvement of some security agents such as police officers as intercessors between kidnappers and relatives of their victims had equally been suspected to be a motivating factor to the escalating trend of kidnapping in Nigeria, especially in the study area. Some kidnap victims, their friends and relatives alleged that kidnapping continued unabated because some police officers are also part of the kidnapping cartel as they give information to the kidnappers. They believe it is so because they observe the police officers are often quick to offer themselves as go between for affected families in negotiating ransom with the kidnappers (Okpanachi and Agagu, 2017)
11. Refusal to involve the police: Hasty payment of ransom by relatives and other well-wishers of abductees without involving the police have made the tracking and eventual arrest of suspected kidnappers difficult. Although, they do this out of fear not to lose their loved ones, just like the case of Mustapha that was adopted from his home at Ihima in Okehi local government area of Kogi state but he was later found dead and buried in a shallow grave in the forest (Obahopa, 2016). Also, Okpanachi and Agagu (2017) mentioned that hasty payment of ransom by victim’s family without involving the police has also contributed to the growth of kidnapping menace in Nigeria, at large”.
12. Lack of stiffer punishment: The kidnappers see this criminal business as a huge profit-making venture and therefore find it difficult to quit. If the government imposes a strict penalty on those caught for kidnapping, this trade will die completely. Dodo and Ohwonohwo (2008), stated that there is little risk of prosecution for kidnappers hence, the trade thrives on.
13. Tertiary institutions factor: Criminal elements disguised as students and mingle with the students to study the environment and perpetuate their criminal act whereas they are not genuine students, especially when schools are in session. This has contributed in no small way to the rising wave of kidnapping in and around the areas in which institutions of higher learning are located; this is because on several occasions, these sets of people have been arrested committing one crime or the other and in the cause of interrogation they claimed to be students but investigation shows that they are not students and most times the vigilante can easily detect them when school is on vacation and they are still loitering around.
14. Activities of Fulani cattle rustlers: it is believed that the normal Fulani herdsmen that have been residing with the people across the federation for ages do not have problem with the indigenes but the Fulani cattle rustlers are dangerous species that are involved in all kinds of criminal activities in the country axis including kidnapping. Whenever there are no opportunity to rustle cattle they will go to the highway to kidnap unsuspecting travelers arming themselves with dangerous weapons. Often, after observing the nature of the car the person is driving, in order to ensure that the occupant is a wealthy person, they suddenly jump out on the road, stopping the person at gun point, whisking him or her away into the forest and make demand for ransom before the victim will be released, (Adegbe, 2020).

Evolution of Kidnapping in Nigeria

According to Dennis (2017), the evolution of abduction in Nigeria has grown into several forms that were previously unusual. Aside from the current trend of kidnapping for ransom, there are other sorts of kidnapping. There are kidnappings for political reasons, for rituals, for religious reasons, and of course the original type, which is the kidnapping of children by a parent because of custody issues. Furthermore, Dennis believed that before colonial Nigeria, abduction was a technique for sourcing slaves to be sold to outsiders. In Nigeria throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, indigenous people kidnapped their siblings, sisters, relatives, and notable offenders and sold them to slave dealers (Dode, 2007). After the abolition of the slave trade, kidnapping for rituals continued in many countries and regions of West Africa, particularly in Nigeria, where fetish and animist beliefs permitted such practices.

In the recent past, political kidnapping was introduced by Niger Delta militants who targeted foreigners, especially Americans and Britons, mainly to draw attention to their plight of environmental degradation caused by oil and gas exploration and production. The hostages were normally held for a short period of time before being released following a press conference broadcast on CNN or the BBC. This trend continued, bringing much-needed attention to the Niger Delta’s environmental degradation. Apparently, in 1999, kidnapping operations began in the Niger Delta Oboro community when some expatriates were kidnapped while working with the ANGOG construction company at Ughelle, in Delta State. Nevertheless, one of the most notable records of kidnapping that drew both national and international attention was in 2005, when the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) kidnapped nine (9) foreign workers in Delta State to bargain for the release of detained Mujahid Asari Dokuubo, leader of the Niger Delta People Volunteer Force (NDPVF) and the arrowhead of the Niger Delta struggle, for a fair deal in this cycle. They did not ask for ransom; they simply asked that their leader be released in exchange for the hostages.

The Federal Government dangled irresistible carrot money (hard currency); the boys could not resist it, and so they took the money and released the hostages (Thom-Otuya 2010). Thus, the wave of kidnapping that started in Niger Delta Nigeria by the Movement for Emancipation of Niger Delta (MEND) in late 2005 as a means of alerting the world of the many years of injustice, exploitation, and marginalization and underdevelopment of Niger-Delta region(Onduku, 2001), took a different dimension, initially, expatriate Oil workers and a few of their unfortunate indigenous colleagues were the targets, but within the 18 months that Dokubo languished in the state security service, (SSS) underground gulag at Abuja, hostage taken not only prospered, it gained considerable leverage and displaced armed robbery as the highest paying crime in Niger Delta because the boys now set it as a means of business to make money, thus what started as political kidnapping turned into economic kidnapping (Tell, December 17, 2007 p23).

According to Essien and Ema (2013), the government of President Umar Yar’adua gave amnesty to Niger Delta insurgents in an effort to reduce violent crimes in the region. Therefore, the crime of abduction escalated from targeting oil employees and corporations to targeting politicians, clergymen, entrepreneurs, and company owners. Also, Arewa (2013) noted that while the crime is abating to a tolerable level in the South-South, where it first assumed its present notoriety, after general amnesty was granted to the militants, it has spread like wildfire to other parts of Nigeria, especially the South-East region in states like Abia, Imo, and Anambra, where kidnapping is also very prevalent.

Furthermore, Thom-Otuya (2010) argued and supported the view that kidnapping in Nigeria, particularly for ransom, began in the Niger Delta region in 2005. However, recent events show that the wave of kidnapping in Nigeria has now spread over the length and breadth of the country, affecting most portions of Borno’s North-East geopolitical zones as well as most parts of Adamawa, Yobe, and Bauchi states. Kidnappings of Westerners for ransom, for example, have been linked to Boko Haram. Some examples include the kidnapping of a French priest, Georges Vandebusch, in November 2013 and the kidnapping of a seven-member French family for a ransom of USD 3 million (Barna, 2014). Members of Boko-Haram have also assaulted schools and institutions, such as the kidnapping of 250 female students from the Government Girls’ Secondary School in Chibok, Borno State (Shuaibu, Salleh, and Shehu 2005). Another linked organization, Ansaru, has also targeted Western nationals, kidnapping Christians and government officials in Kano and Kastina in the North-West area (Barna 2014). The South-West geopolitical zones of Lagos, Ondo, Ogun, Ekiti, Oyo, and Osun are not immune, particularly in the case of billionaire kidnapper Chukwudi Onuamadike A.K.A. Evans, who made an open confession about his kidnapping exploits in Lagos state and its environs when paraded in Lagos police headquarters (Uche 2017).

The north-central zone, which includes Kogi State, has its own share of kidnappings ranging from Benue to Jos, Kwara to Nasarawa, Kogi to Abuja, and Niger States. For instance, in Benue State, abduction cases have been on the rise, in which a middle-aged woman was detained in Alade, Benue State, for the kidnapping of two siblings on her way to Onisha. Also, a journalist with Radio Benue was kidnapped in her house in Makurdi. Mrs. Iyuadoo Tor Agbidye was taken on December 2, 2016 by a four-man gang presumed to be kidnappers (Temi, 2016).
Finally, kidnapping, which began as a tool for several liberation struggles in the Niger Delta region by MEND for the development of the area, became a hydra-headed monster when monetary attachment was introduced, and this has been the motivating factor for criminals to engage in the crime, which has spread to most parts of Nigeria (Akpan and Akpabio 2003).

The Logic of Students’ Kidnappings and Ransom Demands by Bandits in Nigeria

Attacks on innocent students are the gravest of banditry attacks in recent times. Indeed, it appears that school attacks have led to the reduction in other forms of criminal activities the group is known to indulge in such as cattle rustling and farmer-herder clashes. In the case of cattle rustling, it appears abandoned as such cases have stopped appearing on the front pages of the national dailies. However, when cattle rustling project was in vogue, it shook the region when an estimated 300 herders were killed and about 60,000 cattle rustled in 2013 alone (Egwu, 2016). It was also evident in the region to the extent that residents knew the markets where rustled cows were sold and some criminals that were involved in it (Egwu, 2016).

Attacks on students could be traced to the period of 2014 when Boko Haram abducted about 276 Chibok Girls in Borno State. From that period to September 1, 2021, when the students of the Government Day Secondary School were abducted by bandits (see Table 2.1), the region has witnessed additional school attacks where some of the students have either lost their lives or have no traces of their whereabouts.

Table 2.1: Some cases of kidnaped students in Nigeria

Sources: Egwu S. (2016). The political economy of rural banditry in contemporary Nigeria.

It was also confirmed that 42 persons out of which are 27 Students and three staff were among those kidnapped from Government Science College, Kagara in Rafi local government area of Niger State early Wednesday. Twelve of those abducted are also said to be family members of staff of the school. The Niger State Governor, Alhaji Abubakar Sani Bello who disclosed this to journalists at Government House, Minna, Wednesday, said the attack was executed at about 2 am on Wednesday morning. He confirmed that one of the student’s called Benjamin Doma was shot dead during the attack, (Vanguard, 2021).

The Governor disclosed that there were 650 students on the enrollment list of the school out of which 27 were abducted. Governor Bello who decried the incessant raid of some local government areas of the state in the past few weeks ordered the immediate closure of all boarding schools in the security-affected local government areas to forestall reoccurrence, (Vanguard, 2021).

ILORIN – A gang of kidnappers struck at Kwara State University Malete in Moro Local Government Area of the state Thursday afternoon and kidnapped six students, (Vanguard, 2017). Again, in 2021, suspected kidnappers abducted a 300-level Mass Communication student of the Kwara State University, Malete. The victim, identified as Khadijat Isaiq, was said to be walking with a friend to her off-campus hostel in the town when she was attacked and abducted. A source told our correspondent that the kidnappers had contacted the university and demanded a ransom of N50 million, (Punch News, 2021).

In another development, a lecturer with the Kogi State University, Ayingba, Prof. John Alabi was kidnapped on Monday at about 6pm by unknown gunmen. The incident was said to have happened when the lecturer was about to enter his apartment.

It was gathered that the kidnappers who were fully armed accosted the University Don with a Mercedes Benz car and whisked him away to an unknown destination, the source said the abductors called the wife and demanded N20 million, (Dailypost, 2021).

Effects of Insecurity on Educational Achievement of Higher Institutions

Having noted that the importance of peace cannot be overemphasized in higher institutions of learning and the nation at large, it is important to note further that insecurity has been an impediment to achieving the goals and objectives of higher institutions. Effective education cannot be achieved in situations where crises, have become incessant in our societies which in most cases have forced students or learners out of school. Good and experienced lecturers will prefer to transfer their services to other schools where their safety will be secured and guaranteed. Learning materials are always destroyed during crises, and the donor countries that provided such supports will be reluctant to provide further support to conflict areas considering the high risks. It is the leaner that turns out to be at the receiving end. Higher institutions and places of learning are often explicit targets during periods of crises in most parts of the world, including Nigeria.

In line with this submission, UNESCO (2010) reports that educational institutions has been attacked in at least 31 countries in Africa, Asia, Europe and Latin America over the past years. The learners will not be totally focused on their studies as they will not have peace of mind. They will always be in fears in schools with the menace. Evidence shows that deviant behavioural traits are on the increase in the country generally, and in the higher education system specifically. For example, Alhaji Shehu Shagari, the Nation’s civilian president from 1979-1983 expressed concern over the growing incidence of criminality and corruption in Nigeria. He lamented that the country was steadily yielding to the pressures of crime and its hidden perpetrators, The Standard Newspapers, (27th Nov. 2009).

EMPIRICAL STUDIES

A number of studies have been conducted on the relationship between the availability of national security and socio-economic development (Umoh, 2010 cited in Chidi, 2014:3-7; Inyang, 2009; Ishaq and Obi, 2017). There are also studies on kidnapping, rural banditry and their attendant consequences on mutual suspicion between farmers and herders in Northern Nigeria, (Usman, Obi and Okeme, 2020, Obi, 2019, Azad, Crawford & Kala 2018); Obi, Job, Isyaku, Letswa, and Kolawole (2018), Enyiazu and Nwangwu, (2019); Aderinto & Achem, (2018). This study is on the effect of banditry and kidnapping on tertiary institutions which if managed well could generate quality education for our youths, massive economic development, food security and Foreign Direct Investment and serve as national development/integration mechanism. The incident of banditry and kidnapping has affected Nigeria’s image as a nation abroad, it has also affected Nigeria’s attempt to develop a viable tourism industry as visitors are regularly warned by their countries to be wary of coming to Nigeria. Many would-be investors have also stayed away for fear of being kidnapped (Ekpe, 2009). In 1999/2000, kidnapping operation began in Niger Delta in Oboro community where three (3) expatriates’ staff of Shell Petroleum Company was kidnapped, two (2) Indian nationals, working with ANCOG Construction Company at Ughelli, in Delta state were kidnapped and a Greek national was held captive near Burutu in Delta state. Ijaw youths seized a helicopter belonging to one of the oil firms together with its crew as a protest to the company for neglecting their welfare (Ibaba, 2008).

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This research work adopts the Queer Ladder theory (QLT) as its main analytical theoretical framework. The Queer Ladder theory was adopted to explain the importance of effective government capacity to enforce order and how poor security policies undermine national security for peaceful coexistence and socio-economic development. This theory is premised on multiplicity of actors involved in security and developmental governance resources and how their act of commission or omission escalate or help in nipping insecurity in the bud.

The Queer Ladder theory was influenced by an American sociologist, Daniel Bell (1919-2011) who coined the idea of Queer Ladder in an attempt to explain the instrumental essence of organized crime as a desperate means of economic empowerment and social climbing. This theoretical perspective has since fertilized into a popular theoretical framework widely used in contemporary crime studies. The basic assumptions of Queer Ladder theory are highlighted below;

1. Organized crime is an instrumental behaviour, it is a means to an end.
2. It is an instrument of social climbing and/or socio-economic advancement.
3. It is a means to accumulate wealth and build power (Mallory, 2007; Okoli and Orinya, 2013).

            Also, often ascribed to this theory is the notion that organized crime thrives in contexts where the government’s capacity to dictate, sanction and deter crime is poor; where public corruption is endemic; and where prospects for legitimate livelihood opportunities are slim (Nwoye, 2000; Lyman, 2007; Okoli and Orinya, 2013) under these circumstances, the incentive to indulge in crime is high, while deterrence from criminal living is low. In other words, the benefits of committing a crime surpass the costs and /or risks. This creates ample pretext and motivation for criminal impunity and franchise (Okoli and Orinya, 2013).

            Banditry and Kidnapping is an organized crime and there are series of theories useful to analyze organized crime in which the Queer Ladder is one of them. Therefore, anyone who indulges in organized crime such as kidnapping is seen as being lucrative and successful. In the broadest terms, organized crime as kidnapping is viewed as a group conduct designed to take advantage of criminal opportunities, whether on one time or on a recurring basis. Also, it is not surprising to see criminals associating with other criminal for the purpose of committing crime such as kidnapping.

Based on the above, the relevance of Bell’s Queer Ladder theory to the phenomenon of banditry and kidnapping in North central Nigeria can never be overemphasized because the attitude of these criminal elements is one of desperate attempt for economic empowerment and social climbing. These criminals view banditry and kidnapping as a means to an end. The resolve of the criminals to become wealthy at all cost without recourse to the how, led them into the illegitimate activities of kidnaping. Thus, these criminal elements see their action as a means to build power and accumulate wealth because if it is just for survival after the first successful kidnapping, they should have stopped but they continue in the crime to make more money.

More so, according to Queer Ladder theory, banditry and kidnapping thrive because the government capacity to dictate sanction and to deter crime is poor and that is the experience in most of the areas under study. Queer Ladder theory posits that, an environment whereby public corruption thrives, the tendency is that crimes and criminalities will prosper. There are cases of government officials’ corruption which tend to send wrong signals to the general public by this, criminals will infer that so far people in government are corrupt they have no moral rights to challenge their criminal activities. Moreover, Queer Ladder argued that, in a situation whereby opportunities for legitimate livelihood are very slim, the pull to indulge in crime such as kidnapping is very high, such is the case of North Central Nigeria that is becoming survival of the fittest.

Furthermore, these elements characterized every criminal group as posited by Queer theory; hierarchical organizational structure dominated by a strong leader, they operate in a territory in order to monopolize the criminal opportunities in that particular geographical area, and they operate with violence to enforce their objectives and to influence people to comply with their criminal conduct. These above elements are found in the criminal gangs who are engaged in the crime of kidnapping in and around the higher institutions environment. Finally, it suffice to conclude that those that are into banditry and kidnapping in Nigeria indulge in the crime because incentive to indulge in the crime is very high while deterrent to criminal living is low i.e. the benefits in committing crime is high while the costs and risks is low and this has served as motivation for criminals. Also, they indulge in kidnapping to amass wealth for themselves based on the life of luxury and affluence of some of the suspects. This theory is premised on multiplicity of actors involved in security and developmental governance resources and how their act of omission or commission escalate or help in nipping insecurity in the bud.

METHODOLOGY

Study Settings

For the purpose of this study, eight (8) higher institutions with experience of bandit attack were sampled in North central Nigeria which are; Government Science College, Kagara in Rafi local government areas, Niger State, Kwara State University, Malete, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi State Polytechnic Lokoja, Federal University of Agriculture in Makurdi (FUAM) in Benue

State, University of Abuja, Plateau State University and Plateau State Polytechnic.

The North Central (often hyphenated to the North-Central) is the one of the six geopolitical zones of Nigeria representing the majority of the country’s Middle Belt. It comprises six states – Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa, Niger, and Plateau – as well as Nigeria’s Federal Capital Territory. The North Central stretches across the whole width of the country, from the border with Cameroon to that with Benin. In terms of the environment, the zone is dominated by the Guinean forest–savanna mosaic, with the western portion falling into the West Sudanian savanna eco region. Plateau State is also named for the Jos Plateau, which lies in the east-central portion of the zone. The region has a population of about 20 million people, around 11% of the total population of the country. The country’s capital of Abuja, which is in the Federal Capital Territory, as well as Ilorin and Jos, are the most populous cities in the North Central, as well as the sixth, seventh, and eighth most populous cities in Nigeria, (Wikipedia, 2023).

Sources: Coordinate Research Map Using ARC Map (2023)

The study made use of quantitative data, using a cross sectional design to analyse data collected from the survey participants on the research topic under investigation. As this research has been conducted for investigating the effect of banditry and kidnapping on the development of selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria, the survey has been conducted among students, staff, and residence of institution host communities indicating the adoption of two stage sampling. The study recruited participants through relevant platforms such as WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram and personal contact. The participants comprise of undergraduate and postgraduate students, staff, and residence of the host community both male and female above 18 years.  The researcher notified the participants first before sending them questionnaires in order to make sure they responded back with the completed questionnaire soon. The questionnaires were distributed to 350 participants. Out of these distributed questionnaires, only 321 respondents answered all questions in the survey questionnaire. Hence, the research has considered the responses of 321 participants for investigating the research topic. In order to analyse the survey data and draft the final findings, the study made use of descriptive and inferential statistics to analyse the data of the study, the survey responses were graphically and tabularly presented using frequency, Variance Inflation Factors (VIF), T-statistics and probit regression analysis was used as an inferential tools and results interpreted for finally drafting the research findings.

RESULT AND FINDINGS

Demographic Features

Table 1 shows that 11.5% of the total respondents are of age between 15 and 18, 21.8% are between age 19 and 22, 25.9% are between age 23 and 26, 20.6% are between age 27 and 30, while the remaining 20.2% of the total respondents are above 30 years of age. These implies that the respondents are adult hence will understand the impact of their input on the subject of research. The result of the gender socio-demographic characteristics as presented in Table 2, shows that majority of the respondents interviewed were male (79.1%), however a low proportion of the respondents were females (20.9%), never the less female were still represented in the analysis. Findings in table 3 revealed that 61.1% (196) of the total respondents were students in an affected institution, 20.6% (66) were staff, and 14.0% (45) of the total respondents were Artisan/business operators in an affected institution, while the remaining 4.4% (14) of the total respondents were residence in the affected communities. These implies that the respondents has an experience on the subject matter. Low level of education no doubt affects the level of technology adoption and skill acquisition. It may also constitute a challenge to the effective security of a community, this research has taken proper steps in accessing respondents to make sure the respondents are educated enough to answer the questions pose by this research. All the respondents have an educational qualification with most of the respondents having or undergoing a degree programme, (see table 4).

Figure 1 shows that sixty four (64) respondents were selected from Government Science College, Kagara in Niger State, forty nine (49) respondents also selected from University of Abuja, thirty two (32) respondents were selected from Plateau State University, other twenty six (26) respondents were selected from Plateau State Polytechnic, only fifty one (51) respondents returned the questionnaire from Kogi State University, twenty four (24) respondents also returned the questionnaire from Kogi State Polytechnic while forty five (45) respondents were selected from Kwara State University and the remaining thirty (30) respondents were from Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi. The participants were selected from different schools, the respondent location as obtained from the coordinate of the respondent in the questionnaire with sampled institutions only institutions with experience of banditry attack were selected in Nigeria North central, (see fig 2: Nigeria map).

Variance inflation factor (VIF) Analysis for multi-collinearity Test

We assessed the validity of kidnapping and banditry attack on academic activities in accordance with established guidelines (Barki, et al., 2007). First, we tested multi-collinearity among the indicators by computing the variance inflation factor (VIF) of each indicator. As shown in Table 5, the results indicate that all the VIFs ranged from 1.074 for factors under investigations, both factors were below the 3.33 threshold, thus indicating that multi-collinearity was not present. Second, we assessed the Significance of the indicators (see Table 6) and found that the significant of almost all paths (i.e., the relative contribution) that banditry and kidnapping contributed negatively to educational and development activities. Students withdraw from institutions due to the effects/fear of kidnapping and banditry attack, Schools were shut down due to the effects/fear of banditry attack, Bandit kidnap during attack, Bandit main aim is to kidnap for ransom, Banditry and kidnapping activities reduces students’ enrolment in schools, Bandits destroys the school properties, Banditry and kidnapping activities reduces population in the host community, and Banditry and kidnapping activities reduces business activities in the host community. All these factors show to be significantly affecting educational activities negatively and has a very low tolerance from education, it further pose a low collinearity tolerance as it had an important absolute contribution to banditry effects.  Since we wanted to explore the effect of banditry and kidnapping on the development of selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria potential relationship between the likelihood of banditry and kidnapping and the development of selected tertiary institutions, we decided to keep the indicators in our study.

Test of Hypothesis

These hypotheses were tested using the Wald chi-square statistics. We compare the observed value of the chi-square with the corresponding significant value. The value defines the critical region in a two tailed test. If Sig. < 0.05, we reject H₀ and conclude that the estimate is significant. And if Sig > 0.05, we accept H₀ and conclude that the estimate is statistically not significant.

H₁: Banditry and kidnapping does not affect the development of tertiary institutions.

From the analysis result in table 7 the calculated chi-square for the variable Banditry and kidnapping is 279.749 while the corresponding significance value of 0.000 from this, we concluded that sig < 0.05 and reject the null hypothesis thereby concluding that banditry and kidnapping affect the development of tertiary institutions. This agreed with the findings of Sanchi, et. al. (2022) which report argues that the widespread criminal activity in Nigeria poses a threat to national security, as well as to the maintenance of peace and the growth of education as well as other areas of the economy. The efforts that many stakeholders have made to combat the plague have not produced the result that was hoped for.

H₂: Banditry and kidnapping have no significant impact on academic activities of tertiary institutions

From the analysis result in table 8 the calculated chi-square for the variable impact of banditry and kidnapping on academic activities of tertiary institutions is 144.617 while the corresponding significance value is 0.000 from this, we concluded that sig < 0.05 and reject the null hypothesis thereby concluding that banditry and kidnapping have no significant impact on academic activities of tertiary institutions. This coincides with the findings of (Igwe, 2021; Isenyo, 2021; Maishanu, 2020) which state that the untoward development of banditry and kidnapping constrained governments of the affected states to close schools for some period, while boarding facilities were equally closed (Bello, 2020). This situation has become highly alarming and worrisome to the government, the public and scholars.

H₃: Banditry and kidnapping have no significant effect on the socio-economic development of host community

From the analysis result in table 9 the calculated chi-square for the variable effect of banditry activities on business activities in the host community is 685.276 while the corresponding significance value is 0.000 from this, we concluded that sig < 0.05 and reject the null hypothesis thereby concluding that banditry and kidnapping has a significant effect on the socio-economic development of host community. This coincides with the research of Bashir and Mustapha (2022) the study found that armed banditry has significant negative consequences on poverty, unemployment, food security, education, health, income and the general standard of living of the people living in the state; it also affects other socio-economic activities in the region.

DISCUSSION/IMPLICATION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS

The paper examined the effect of banditry and kidnapping on the development of selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria. The paper reviewed the issue of banditry on Nigerian higher institutions. The paper from the FGD reports deduced that the menace of banditry is becoming worrisome as a result of high level of unemployment, weak security system, poverty, porosity of Nigeria’s’ borders, arms proliferations and the presence of scarcely governed spaces which serve as hideouts to the bandits. Consequently, the paper reveals that there have been high incidences of banditry attacks on cities resulting in kidnapping of students, staff of institutions and residence in the region with attendant security challenges. The paper thus finds that Nigeria security has been quite tense and volatile in the north central due to the alarming rate of banditry with the attendant massive plundering and carnage, which has plunged the region into a state of insecurity in all spheres of life.

Concerning kidnapping, not only does forceful removal of an individual from his/her family traumatizes the victim, it also unsettles the lives of his/her parents, family, and community. Victim’s families often talk about their inability to settle while knowing that their family member was somewhere else and feeling constantly depressed and ill. Some victim’s relatives become dependent on pills and alcohol, feel suicidal, unable to function properly, feel helpless, feeling as if they have lost their relative forever.

Over these last few years, the North central region of Nigeria has been ignited with spates of students’ abductions and ransom demands which throw parents, security agents, and government (both federal and states) into confusion. In fact, it has become an existential threat such that national dailies break even with captivating, yet regrettably stylistic reportage of this ugly menace. The popular discourse for this threat is rooted in the motive for financial gains. In contrast, this paper situates it within the context of education eradication. In this light, the paper aims to seek the interface between the rising menace of banditry in the North central Nigeria and the mission of annihilating western education which would further set the region on the track of socio-economic backwardness and form the catalyst for Islamization. The current form of banditry has a close relationship with known terrorist groups in the Nigerian state (Boko Haram, ISWAP, and Ansaru) and therefore, has common ideology of eradicating education in the region and setting the center stage for Islamization. Abduction of students and ransom collections are just logic in furtherance of the ideology. The analysis was based on 321 respondents from eight (8) affected institutions in the north central region and the results shows that; banditry and kidnapping affect the development of tertiary institutions, banditry and kidnapping has a significant impact on academic activities of tertiary institutions, also banditry and kidnapping has a significant effect on the socio-economic development of host communities.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study, effect of banditry and kidnapping on the development of selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria, sees education as the light every individual needed to move to the next stage in the journey of life. Education helps to give direction create opportunity and place you in good position in life. Lack of security of lives and property of the citizens is a severe hindrance to meaningful development. Insecurity which has resulted in numerous crises ranging from farmers-herders conflict, kidnapping, banditry amongst others constitutes a devastating threat to the security of lives and property of the citizenry. The study seeks to determine the causes of kidnapping of students in tertiary institutions in the study areas, to assess the implications of these security breaches on the development of tertiary institutions, to investigate the effects of security breaches on academic activities of tertiary institutions and to explore the effect of Banditry and Kidnapping on the socio-economic development of host communities. Using a quantitative data, a cross sectional research design to analyse data collected from three hundred and twenty one (321) survey participants were interviewed across eight (8) higher institutions in North Central Nigeria, in order to analyse the survey data and draft the final findings, the study made use of descriptive and inferential statistics to analyse the data of the study, the survey responses are graphically and tabular presentations, frequency, Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) were used for pretest, T-statistics and probit regression analysis was used as an inferential tools and results interpreted for finally drafting the research findings. The analysis finds that Banditry and kidnapping has 279.749 Likelihood ratio of effect on the development of tertiary institutions with the corresponding significance value is 0.000 with this we conclude that banditry and kidnapping affect the development of tertiary institutions. The probit analysis of 144.617 (0.000) and t-statistics also shows that banditry and kidnapping activities has a significant negative effect on educational activities in North central Nigeria and educational activities has a very low tolerance for banditry and kidnapping activities.

            The research also finds that banditry and kidnapping have a significant effect on the socio-economic development of host community. This coincides with the research of, Bashir and Mustapha (2022), who found that armed banditry has significant negative consequences on poverty, unemployment, food security, education, health, income and the general standard of living of the people living in the state; it also affects other socio-economic activities in the region.

Banditry and kidnapping activities are concluded to be a set-back for educational development and socio-economic development North central Nigeria. This is a worrisome challenge that affects the future of the children, who are regarded as the leaders of tomorrow in particular and the nation in general. This implies that there is the urgent need for all concerned parties to urgently take steps to stop the ugly drift.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The study therefore recommends the following solution to combating banditry and kidnapping activities;

1. Government should strengthen the security personnel by equipping them with sophisticated weapons, communication gadget and logistics to enable them confront the bandits head-on. Local vigilante, who possess relevant knowledge of the terrain of the vast ungoverned forest should be integrated into the security network to get into the nooks and crannies of the area to flush out these bandits.
2. An enabling environment should be created by the government for the youth to be gainfully employed. The relevant agencies of government should monitor our borderlands effectively to discourage the influx of illegal migrants from neighbouring countries like Niger, who form the core of bandits’ recruits and properly check arms proliferation.
3. Modern methods of surveillance such as the use of techno-based drones, satellite and GPS should be devised by the government and its relevant agencies like National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA) to effectively monitor the ungoverned spaces and share such data among the relevant agencies of government; and Stringent sanctions should be meted out to the captured or arrested bandits to serve as deterrence to other bandits.

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Table 1: Age Distribution of the respondents

Source: Computed from Field Survey, 2023

Table 2: Sex Distribution of the respondents

Source: Computed from Field Survey, 2023

Table 3 Class/Occupation of the respondents

Source: Computed from Field Survey, 2023

Table 4 Educational level of the respondents

Source: Computed from Field Survey, 2023

Figure 1: Respondents distribution in Different schools.

Source: Computed from Field Survey, 2023

FIG. 2: Graphical presentation of the affected institutions

Table 5: VIF Statistics

Source: Computed from Field Survey, 2023

Table 6: Variance inflation factor (VIF) Analysis for multi-collinearity Test

Source: Computed from Field Survey, 2023

Test of Hypothesis 1

Table 7: Probit Regression Analysis

Source: Computed from Field Survey, 2023

NOTE: values in parentheses are significance level ^***, ^** and ^* = coef. Significant @ 1%, 5% and 10% level of probability, respectively. NS = Not Significant.

Hypothesis 2

Table 8 Probit Regression Analysis

Hypothesis 3

Table 9 Probit Regression Analysis