Enhancing Female Enrollment in Advanced Secondary Education in Selected Secondary Schools in Kampala District, Uganda

Enhancing Female Enrollment in Advanced Secondary Education in Selected Secondary Schools in Kampala District, Uganda

Nakawuki Rose Costa

Assistant Lecturer, Department of Foundations and Curriculum Studies, College of Education and External Studies, Makerere University

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0065

Received: 16 January 2025; Accepted: 21 January 2025; Published: 28 February 2025

ABSTRACT

Education Sector is witnessing new developments at the international and national levels. Internationally, Heads of States under the United Nations in 2015 adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Sustainable Development Goal 4 provides for inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities for all and has defined new targets and indicators that have to be achieved by 2030. This research study aimed at investigating the Strategies to Increase Female Enrolment in Advanced Level in selected Secondary Schools in Kampala District. The main objective of the study was to establish the enrollment of females for Advanced level in secondary schools.  Cross-sectional research design was adopted for the study. Schools were randomly drawn from Kampala district in Uganda.  The study was quantitative and was guided by the descriptive and cross sectional survey designs. This sample size involved 300 form five and six secondary students. These students were selected using simple random sampling technique. A questionnaire was used in collecting data for the study. This data was analyzed using frequencies and percentages. The findings of the study revealed that socio-economic barriers, cultural norms and expectations, lack of awareness about educational opportunities and gender stereotyping had significant relationship with the female enrollment in advanced level in selected secondary schools. Therefore, female student’s attitude should be changed towards studies at A’ level, awareness be made, addressing cultural barriers where girls are seen for marriages, hope be developed in girls that educated girls can make good wife’s not so that they are patient and the assumption that A ‘level is difficult tends to discourage girls should stop because girls should know that they are having the same brain like boys, they are not any less. The difference between boys and girls is not in the brain that handles academic gymnastics. They should therefore stop self-pity and be hustlers in the field of academics like anyone else. Female enrolment would improve at an advanced   level if the above challenges, wrong beliefs can be addressed.

Key words: Female learners’ attitudes, Female enrolment, Secondary Education, Advanced level in secondary schools

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Although the Education on Sector in Uganda has registered gains in promoting gender equality and girl child education, there are still wide gender gaps at all levels which continue to disadvantage girls and women in education and sports. For instance, in 2014, females constituted only 46.9% of the total enrolment in Advanced level in secondary schools; only 34% females compared to 45% males completed Senior 4; 25.9% females compared to 33.6% males joined Senior 5 and the Uganda Certificate of Education (UCE) performance index for females was 39.7% compared to 44.5% for males in 2014. There are also wide regional disparities; for instance, more than 31% of girls aged 10-19 years in Karamojong experiencing extreme vulnerability, followed by West Nile and Central region (Southern Buganda including the islands in Lake Victoria) at 21% -30%, followed by Northern Uganda and East Central at 20% while the rest of the country is between 12% – 16%2. Unequal outcomes for girls and boys, women and men in education ultimately have implications for the achievements of gender equality and empowerment in society as a whole (Jones, 2011).

On the other hand, the Education Sector is witnessing new developments at the international and national levels. Internationally, Heads of States under the United Nations in 2015 adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Sustainable Development Goal 4 provides for inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning opportunities for all and has defined new targets and indicators that have to be achieved by 2030. At the national level, Government of Uganda (GOU) developed a National Vision 2040 which aspires for a transformed Ugandan Society from a Peasant to a Modern and Prosperous Country within 30 years as well as the Second National Development Plan (NDP II) with a theme of Strengthening Uganda’s Competiveness for Sustainable Wealth Creation, Employment and Inclusive Growth. To contribute towards the achievement of the National Vision 2040, the Education Sector has formulated new policies on Special Needs and Inclusive Education, Integrated Early Childhood Development (IECD), Skilling Uganda Policy, Science Education and Teachers’ Policy among others. The Gender in Education Policy therefore needs to take into account these developments as well as define new performance targets and indicators towards the achievement of gender equality for the Education and Sports Sector (Allan, 2012).

Theoretical background

The study was guided by the theory of human development, a cross Cultural analysis as advanced by Welzel, Inglehart and Kligemann, (2003). This Theory states that conversion of economic development into a cultural process of human development that gives to rise to an emancipative world view. This emancipative world view is reflected in self-expression values that emphasize human choice, autonomy, specifically autonomy of girl to enroll for school (Adam & Gichinga, 2018). This theory’s core assumption is that of enabling girls to develop in an emancipative value through changes in existential constraints. In line with this theory girl children should be allowed to develop in an emancipative manner through enrolling them for school education. In doing this, they would be empowered to contribute to the wellbeing of the society.

The study was carried out in Kampala District where Government of Uganda has been implementing the Government White Paper on Education since 1992. The Education and Sports Sector in 2016 embarked on a consultative process to review the Government White Paper on Education as well as the Education Sector Strategic Plan (2007-2015). These are important processes for the Education and Sports Sector and should take into account critical gender and girls’ education issues that continue to undermine the performance of the Education and Sports Sector. The Second Gender in Education Policy aims to inform the “Second” Government Paper and the Second Education Sector Strategic Plan. Achieving gender equality in education and in the Ugandan Society is a human right. In addition, benefits to achieving gender equality in education, and empowering women through education, have been proven internationally. Economic effects include higher income growth, higher wages and more productive farming. Social benefits include empowerment of women and girls leading to owned and informed decisions, reduced spread of HIV and AIDS, reducing gender-based violence and contributing to smaller, healthier and better educated families. National benefits include economic growth, strengthened democracy and meaningful political participation in line with government national objectives.

Statement of the problem 

Despite efforts to promote gender equity in education in Uganda, female enrolment in advanced Secondary education remains persistently low in Kampala District, Uganda. The current enrollment rates indicate a significant gender gap, with girls constituting low enrolment in advanced secondary education. Whereas there are improvements in enrolment, completion and Uganda Certificate of Education (UCE) pass rate for girls in secondary schools over the last 5 years, there are still wide gender gaps in secondary education. Secondary school enrolment for girls is 46.9% compared to 53.1% for boys, Senior Two (S2) proficiency in biology is 12.2%; girls at 5.9% compared to boys at 18.3%; while Senior Four (S4) completion rate for girls is 34% compared to 45% for boys. Uganda Certificate of Education (UCE) performance index is 42.2%; girls at 39.7% compared to boys at 44.5% (EMIS 2015). Transition rate to Senior Five (S5) is 30%; girls at 25.9% compared to boys at 33.6% while Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education (UACE) performance index is 59%; girls at 62% compared to boys at 59%. The 2023 UACE examination witnessed 110,553 candidates registering across 2,102 centers, a notable increase from 97,890 candidates in 2022. Of these, 47,226 (42.7%) were female and 63,339 (57.3%) were male. The number of candidates appearing for the examination also rose to 109,488, with 46,860 (42.8%) females and 62,628 (57.2%) males. Despite this surge, female representation remains consistently lower than males at this level (Karungi, 2024).

It should be noted that, 69% of Ugandan adolescent girls never attended secondary school; despite the introduction of Universal Secondary Education (USE) in 2007 yet 40% of girls aged 20-24 years were married before the age of 18 years (AGI, 2013). Children with disability; and specifically girls drop out more than boys the higher the education level. There is a concern to the government, teachers, parents, community and educationists regarding female students’ enrollment in Advanced level in selected secondary schools in Kampala district. The current study sought to investigate strategies to increase female enrollment in advanced level in selected secondary schools in Kampala District.

RELATED LITERATURE

Challenges for implementing strategies of increasing female enrollment in advanced secondary education.

UNICEF (2020) urged that there was need to develop deeper into the various contextual cultural, society and structural barriers that prevent women from advancing to school leadership rules. There is also a need to identify policies and promising practices that can increase the share of female school leaders in a range of contexts. In so doing this would help to elevate structural barriers women may face to enroll for school education. Meanwhile, Ishaku (2020) investigated the challenges of girl-child Education of Yube state, north-East Nigeria and established to increase enrollment of girls in school, there is need to improve infrastructural deficiency and creating awareness that would encourage people to prioritize the education of girl child. Furthermore, Government was encouraged to create poverty evaluation program at the grass-root and further provide a safe and supportive educational environment free from abuse, early marriage and other social ills.

Heath and Jayachandran (2017) identified that there are gender focused policies that have increased on female enrollment in schools. Such policies included building more schools to reduce travel distances to schools. In Mexico there was also another policy of conditional cash transfers which was a prominent program that kept their daughters in schools that sons. However, this study was done in the somehow developed world while this current study is targeting Uganda a developing country. Empirically Tukahabwa (2022) studied gender and Education in view of secondary school influences on the development of girls careers in science at University of Rwanda. Using quantitative methods, results revealed that Government of Rwanda has come up with policies that favor more girls’ enrollment at University level than boys. The girls’ education policy (Republic of Rwanda, 2008 directed that schools should be proactive in increasing enrollment of girls in courses that they were under represented. This in one way or the other boosted enrollment of these students.

Strategies to increase female enrollment in advanced secondary schools.

Mulaga et al. (2024) investigated strategies of improving performance of girls in mathematics at secondary school of Lusaka District schools. With use of qualitative methods, results revealed that many parents were of the view that girls were poor performers and could not support their enrollment and facilitation at school. The few who enrolled ended up performing poorly. However, this study was not carried out in the context that the current study as targeting, meanwhile Akinyi (2024) investigated factors that influence the retention of female students in secondary schools in Muhoroni Division, Muhoroni District, Kisumu county taking a qualitative approach, results revealed that enrollment and retention of girl children at school was challenged by factors like domestic labor and other society rules which were over whelming on the side of the girl child. It was also revealed that with death of parents, girl child are likely to lack fees and their school enrollment narrows. In line with Akinyi’s study, Akatuhurira (2023) investigated factors influencing student’s enrolment and retention in sciences at Advanced level in secondary schools in Uganda: A case study of Kabale Municipality secondary schools. Venosa et al (2011) and Musungu (2010), also highlighted the strategies of enhancing girl’s enrolment and participation in secondary education in Tanzania. However, these studies were not guided by any theory as was the case for this study in Kampala District, Uganda.

Laraba et al (2024) also investigated the female low enrolment in science subjects and its menace in some randomly selected secondary schools in Fagge Zonal Education of Kano State to ascertain the causes and improvements. Twenty five test item questionnaire based on six factors of socio-cultural, parental, teacher, self, school environment and marital suspected to be capable of causing low enrolment in science subjects were formulated and used for the study. From the study, only parental, school environment and marital factors were implicated as the major factors for low girl’s enrolment. Recommendations made included: Good science laboratories and facilities should be provided to improve female students’ enrolment in science subjects in the schools, and enlightenment of parents on the importance of science to national development is imperative. Teachers should help girls just as they do to boys to encourage gender equality in education. Career guardian and counseling units should be established where pupils and their parents are counseled on the benefits of science, technology, mathematics and careers in such fields. Government should as a matter of policy offer automatic employment to female graduates in any science related field of endeavor to boost the morale of the younger ones in schools.  Scholarships should be provided for girls with potential in science, technology and mathematics subjects to pursue science and engineering courses, this will encourage more females. Current study was guided by the theory of human development that was carried out in Kampala District, Uganda.

Ijah (2018) investigated the causes and remedies for female student’s low enrolment in science subjects in Lafia local government area of Nasarawa State in Nigeria. It was a quantitative study, Questionnaires used as data collection instruments. Results from findings is that all the factors investigated only parental, school environment and marital factors were implicated as the major factors for low female student’s enrolment in science subjects. Recommendations made included: payment of allowance of female science students, to serve as a motivation, enlightment of both parents and their female students on the importance of science to national development and provision of good Science Laboratories and facilities.

STUDY METHODOLOGY

A cross-sectional Survey and descriptive research designs were adopted for the study using inductive and deductive approaches in data collection

The sampling frame consisted of 300 female learners (students) of Advanced level in secondary schools in Kampala district, Uganda. Stratified and simple sampling techniques were used to select a sample of respondents from teachers, administrators, parents and form five and form six students.

Data management and quality control

The Research Protocol was pretested and adjustments were made.

The data captured in research questionnaire was checked for consistence and then stored under lock and key.

The data in the questionnaires were double entered in the epi-data screen by two different data entrants. The soft copies of the data entered in epi-data with a password protected and backed up in Google drive.

Data Analysis

The soft copy of the data stored in Google drive were downloaded and exported to STATA version 14 for cleaning and analysis.

Data is presented in the form of tables, text, and graphs. Frequencies and percentages were used to describe categorical variables in the data. Comparisons was made using chi square, Fisher’s exact test or paired test depending.

Study limitations

The results from this study might not be generalizable (might only be applied to the participants in the study and not to general population). However, we believe another study will be conducted to determine challenges females face when accessing education in Kampala, Mpigi and other districts for comparative analysis and purposes

Data from the respondents was collected through semi-structured tools and data analysis was done with using descriptive statistics, chi-square was used to determine relationships existing between variables in order to determine significance.

The Study Findings  

Source: field data 2024

In the year, 2024, Uganda joined the rest of the world to commemorate the International Day of the Girl Child under the theme “Our time is now-our rights, our future”. One thing is clear there is need to for address constraints that affect girls’ transition to Uganda’s secondary school system. To address the challenges that were associated with low transition of Universal Primary Education graduates, as well as gender inequalities in advanced secondary education enrolment, the Government of Uganda in 2007 initiated the Universal Secondary Education (USE) programme.  Government invested in USE through public-private partnerships and construction of one government aided secondary school per sub-county. As a result, secondary schools increased from 2,373 in 2007 to 3,000 in 2017, and secondary school enrolment grew from 1.23 million students in 2009 to about 1.37 million students in 2017.

However, Ministry of Education and Sports reports continue to show that the enrolment of girls in Advanced secondary education girls have persistently been low compared to boys. This for example was estimated at 21 percent for girls as compared to 23 percent for boys in 2017. These are accompanied by glaring regional disparities, being worse in regions like Karamoja and Lango sub-regions. There is need to reflect on key factors that have continued to hinder girls’ enrolment for advanced secondary school education in Uganda.

Teenage pregnancy continues to be cited as one of the primary factors that limit girls’ access to education and eventual school dropout. These were exacerbated by the stay-at-home and extended school closure measures adopted during the COVID-19 pandemic. By the end of 2021, it was reported that over 378,790 teenage births were recorded at health facilities which accounted for seven percent of the annual average, and this was reported to be higher than the annual average registered in the previous five years (Alice et al., 2023).

This affected school continuation for girls even when schools opened in 2022, which has long term effects on Uganda’s human capital and the future aspirations of girls. Under the National Development Plan III, Uganda committed to reduction of adolescent pregnancy from 22 percent in FY 2020/21 to 15 percent by FY 2025/26. And by the fact that adolescents aged 10-19 years’ account for 26 percent of Uganda’s population, of whom 50 percent are females, it calls for intensive efforts by all concerned stakeholders to raise awareness in schools and communities on the dangers of teenage pregnancies and importance of having girls in school.

It is further noted that lack of sanitary pads is another menstrual related reason for girls’ absenteeism and eventual dropout from school. Only 52.1 percent of teenage girls use disposable sanitary pads while 46.1 percent use other forms of support during their monthly cycles. It is further estimated that about 33 percent of 10-14 year aged girls, 33 percent of 15-17 year aged girls and 19 percent of 18-19 years miss school due to lack of pads. This was made worse with COVID-19 pandemic which marginalized girls when their menstrual needs were not met. In 2016, the Government pledged to provide free sanitary pads to all girls in school. However, in 2020, the Ministry of Education and Sports indicated that this pledge was not feasible due to cost. Given the fact the average cost of sanitary pads has reduced from USD 1.3 in 2012 to about USD 0.84 in December 2020, Government could opt for a nationwide initiative to decrease per-unit costs as a complementary effort to available girls with sanitary pads.

Girls continue to walk long distance more than recommended 5Km to access secondary school education. While the government policy of establishing one secondary school per sub county is commendable to achieve 5Km distance, some sub counties are so large that they are equivalent to some districts elsewhere. Consequently, some girls continue to travel long distances even when a school is established in the sub county, which limits equitable access to education and eventual observed low enrolment rates for girls. For example, there are a number of island communities that require one secondary school per island despite several islands sometimes comprising just one sub county. Government needs to rethink this policy area and take into account the size of sub-counties as well as natural demarcations of islands in allocation of secondary schools per sub-county to reduce on the distance that girls walk to school.

From the document review analysis, results showed that there is e correlation results in indicate significant positive relationship between school environment related factors and female enrolment (r = 0.582**, p<.01). Equally, the results reveal that there is a moderately strong and statistically significant positive correlation between school environment related factors and female enrolment at 0.582** with a significance of 0.007 at the level of 0.01. The implication of this is that school environment related factors positively affect female enrolment in tertiary institutions. The correlation results are supported by the multiple regression results which revealed that school environment related factors determined a change in female enrolment. This is documented in the entire project report

DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

Based on the findings of the study, it was found out that girls’ enrolment in Advanced secondary education in Kampala district Uganda was low compared to male enrollment, as shown by the respondents in school A on the Enrolment of Girls and Boys in Advanced Secondary Education. National Bureau of Statistics 2020 shows A Level Secondary school enrolment for girls was 46.9% compared to 53.1% for boys. It is also realized that, the rate of enrolment of girls was slightly lower than that of boys though the difference is small. For instance, whereas there was an increase of 1.5% in the enrolment of boys in 2014, the difference between girls’ enrolment and that of boys was small since for the girls it was 2.8% yet for the boys it was 1.5%. Even in 2017, boys’ enrolment decreased to 6,000 compared to the enrolment of 2016 that is, 5,000. Therefore, there was 6.4% decrease for boys from 2016 to 2017, yet for girls it was a decrease of 5.5%. All in all, girls’ enrolment in advanced secondary education in selected schools in Kampala district is good since the number of girls admitted does not differ much from that of the boys. The attitudes of female learners determine their enrollment for advanced secondary education and life after school.

It should be noted that, the results revealed that assessing the challenges that hinder female enrolment in Advanced Level education in selected secondary schools in Kampala District would involve a comprehensive examination of various factors. Here are some potential barriers to consider as given by the different informants.

Socio-economic Factors: Economic constraints can be a significant barrier for female students to enroll in Advanced Level education. Poverty limit families’ ability to afford school fees, uniforms, books, and other educational expenses, particularly in urban areas like Kampala District where living costs are relatively high. A number of studies in several African countries suggested that poverty is one of major factor preventing children from getting access to education in Africa. Ntegeka (2024), Higgins (2012) found that “there is a strong correlation between poverty and lower primary and secondary net and gross enrollment rates. She found that three region of Ghana with highest levels of poverty recorded the lowest enrolment and achievement rates in the country. Her study further stipulate that in 2005/06 at secondary level, net and gross enrolment was 36.1% and 44.2% in poor urban households compared with 57.7% and 72.6% in non-poor urban households, in rural areas net and gross enrolment was 22.3% and 39.1% in poor rural households compared with 25.6% and 45.0% in non-poor rural households (Higgins, 2012).

Similarly, Torto (2012), study shows that when the family income becomes poor girls are pulled out of school and boys are left in school. Also when girls are mature enough during preparation for the marriage, they are taken out of school to supplement the Family income by selling, farming or performing other money earning activities. Oxaa, (I997) holds that poverty combines with gender to limit the education opportunities of girls more than boys due to entrenched imbalance power relations as well as unequal gender roles in many cultures worldwide.

Cultural Norms and Expectations: Deep-rooted cultural beliefs and gender stereotypes may discourage families from prioritizing girls’ education beyond a certain level. In some communities, there may be a preference for investing in boys’ education or early marriage for girls rather than pursuing higher education. Socio- cultural practices seem to be a strong setback in girl’s access to education. Visagie (1999) argued that both Western and African cultures seem to be deeply influenced by the idea of fathers. This affect decision made in households about educational matters based on favoring more boys than girls. Adana and Heneveld (1995) in their study of the enrolment patterns of girl’s education in Africa observed that the low participation of girls in education results. From a combination of socio-economic and cultural forces outside the school, as well as traditional gender roles. For example, girls are encouraged or are forced into early marriage, either to protect them from pre-marital pregnancy, which is considered shameful and legitimate in most African societies or to reduce family economic burden. Bamora’s study (2013) on gender inequality in access to education in Ghana found that girls’ education affected by traditional practices associated with adolescences and the rights of passage, which related to the construction of sexuality of young boys and girls. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is identified as harmful to the wellbeing of women and girls and contributed to low enrolment of girls in education. According to World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) FGM is commonly practiced among African communities and about 100 to 140 million girls and women worldwide have experienced (WHO, 2008). Therefore, bad socio- cultural practices contribute to keep many girls out of school since different community has different culture that hinders girls to access education.

Limited Access to Quality Education: Disparities in the availability and quality of educational infrastructure and resources between urban and rural areas within Kampala District may disproportionately affect female students. Schools in remote or underserved areas may lack adequate facilities, qualified teachers, and educational materials, making it challenging for girls to access Advanced Level education. It has been argued that inadequate school facilities can also keep girls away, some school facilities can actually make it difficult for girls to go to school. For example, matured girls cannot carry out their studies comfortably due to inadequate latrines. Kionga (1997) found that lack of latrines; especially separate latrines for girls were identified as worst school experience for girls, these draws attention to the special conditions and experience which prevent girls from full participation and achievement in classes. Bamora (2013) in her study in Ghana found that there is lack of school gender friendly facilities to provide favorable environment for students particularly for girls to learn and hence prevent them to access education. She found that school lacked important facilities such as hostels, furniture, drinking water, proper urinals and toilets for girl’s access to education. Moreover, World Bank (2008) study in Ethiopia reveal that many schools face challenge of insufficient classrooms and furniture and basic sanitary facilities- including separate toilets, for boys and girls, all these impedes many girls access to education.

Gender-based Violence and Safety Concerns: Fear of gender-based violence, harassment, or exploitation while commuting to and from school or within school premises can deter female students from attending Advanced Level education. Unsafe environments can lead to absenteeism or dropout among girls, especially if schools fail to address these concerns effectively.

Lack of Role Models and Mentorship: The absence of female role models in leadership positions within schools or communities may limit girls’ aspirations and confidence to pursue Advanced Level education. A lack of mentorship and guidance programs tailored to female students can also hinder their academic and personal development.

Motivation is very important for better educational performance and ways of promoting balance in access to education between boys and girls. Various studies reveal that while assertive behavior is promoted among boys, passive behavior is promoted and encouraged among girls. Girls are called on to perform domestic duties for teachers at school, such as fetching water, reinforcing gender stereotypes and taking time away from learning (World Bank, 2007). World Bank (2012) states that lack of female teachers as role models was also highlighted as being key factors hindering girls experience of quality education. It also argued that their presence encourages parents to send their children especially girls to school because they see opportunities for their daughters outside the household and sense of security for girls when female teachers are present. The absence of female teachers made many girls to be inferior and low concentration to academics for better achievement. Bamora (2013) study in Ghana found that boys got more praise in the classroom for their active participation in lessons while girls were praised for their good behavior and neatness, this affect girl’s retention and performance and hence some girls’ dropout of their studies.

Early Marriage and Pregnancy: In some cases, cultural practices or societal pressures may lead to early marriage or pregnancy among female students, which disrupts their education and reduces their likelihood of enrolling in Advanced Level programs. Bamora (2013) states that another factor that relates to sexual violence and serve to limit girls’ education in education is pregnancy. Ahrned (1999), Hallman (2004) and Kaufman (2001) argued that the education of most school girls in Ghana and other worldwide is cut short by unwanted pregnancies as many of them were expelled from school at the moment their pregnancies become visible. The Forum for Africa Women Educationalist (FAWE) (2000) reveals that about 21% of Kenya adolescents have had at least one child at the age of 20 and that 8000 to 13,000 girl dropout of school due to pregnancy. The same report that was revealed in Ghana, stipulated that 1,068 student dropped out of school between period 1990 and 1994. Of these 638 were girls and 1172 representing 27% dropout due to pregnancy, making pregnancy the highest cause of dropout among girls. In Uganda, the report show that 60% of patients who died as the result of abortion complications were girls below the age of 20, most of them are secondary school’s students (FAWE, 2000).

Inadequate Support Services: Schools may lack comprehensive support services to address the specific needs of female students, such as menstrual hygiene management facilities, counseling services, or access to reproductive health education and resources.

Limited Awareness and Information: Lack of awareness about the importance of Advanced Level education, available scholarships, or alternative pathways for female students may contribute to low enrollment rates. Information gaps among parents, guardians, and community members about the benefits of educating girls beyond basic levels could hinder efforts to increase enrollment.

From the last objective aimed at investigating strategies that would effectively increase female enrollment in Advanced level education in selected secondary schools in Kampala District. The results revealed that there was a strong positive relationship between providing scholarships or financial assistance and enrollment. Increasing female enrollment in Advanced level education in selected secondary schools in Kampala District requires a multidimensional approach that addresses various factors influencing girls’ access and retention in education. Here are some strategies as shown in the study findings from different informants of the selected secondary schools in Kampala district.

Gender Mainstreaming in Education: Mainstreaming gender in education is very important in realizing gender equality in access to education. This is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies and programs in any area and at all levels. It is the strategy for making women’s as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension in the design, implementation, monitoring and of policies and programs in all political, economic and social spheres (UNESCO, 1999). In Indonesia, for example, the presidential instruction Number 9/2000 on gender mainstreaming in national development is the main policy and strategy to reduce the gender gap against women. The national Education has developed Gender mainstreaming Programs of Action to ensure equal access to education (Indonesia Government, 2000). Generally mainstreaming gender is identified by many governments as effective and efficient ways of realizing gender equality.

Change of Negative Socio-Cultural Beliefs, Norms, Values, Attitudes and Practices Collectively, these socio-cultural factors have negative impacts on education of girls with the regard to all key indicators -~ access, retention, performance and transition. Evidence suggests that gender inequality should be addressed not only in terms of financial or economic aspects but also in social norms (UN 2002; UNRISD, 2013). With this in mind it has been addressed that the lack of women’s decision-making power likely cause gender inequality in some society and in families (OECD, 2013). The effects are not only limited at home, in the governmental system, community councils, and policy making institutions, women are under- represented which counts for the low level of women’s perspectives in the systems. Limited reflection of women’s perspective in decision making result’s in gender discrimination in society within households (UN, 2002; OECD, 2014).

Women Right and Human Right: Violence against Women and the Girl Child Violence against women and girl child limited millions of girls to exercise the basic right to access education. Various studies show how different countries struggle to overcome violence against women and girl child. The Indonesia government for example has put forward the effort to eliminate violence against women as one of its national priorities. Different strategies were taken like~ Joint declaration between GOs and NGO’s on elimination of violence against women and launching of “Zero Tolerance Policy on violence against women”. Also establishment of laws to protect child is very important for example Law Number 23/2002 on child protection (Indonesia government, 2000).

Increasing Admission or Access to Education: Access has been identified by UNESCO and other United Nations Agencies as one ways of reducing gender inequality in education in the society. UNESCO (2015) identified various strategies to increase equal access to education through promoting gender equality in national laws, policies and plans seeks to expand access learning opportunity in particular for girls and women in formal and non- formal education. Similarly, through eliminating fees for primary and secondary education has been identified as alternative to increase girls’ enrollment. Study done by UNDG (2013) in Ethiopia, Ghana. Kenya, Malawi and Mozambique reveal that fees are a particular barrier to school attendance for children from poor and or rural households especially girls, orphans and children with 21 disabilities. There is greatly need for governments to remove school fees and other contribution in order to increase female enrollment in secondary levels (Bamora, 2013).

Formulation of Policies to Address Gender Inequities and Inequalities: Despite the apparent gender inequities and inequality in education in SSA many countries and institutions of education have not developed comprehensive policies to address the issue, UNESCO (1999) emphasizes on gender mainstreaming in educational policies and programs in any area and at all levels as efficient way of alleviating inequality in access to education between boys and girls. Formulation of policies that intend to equalize access in education should be adopted by policy makers so as bring equality in education. Bamora (2013) suggested that there is a need to mainstream gender in teacher training so as to ensure female teachers are constantly available in school as role models.

Gender Sensitization and Social Mobilization: Education is highly needed to change male domination in education. Many countries implement this strategy in different ways. Kenya government for example found that increasing gender awareness is very important; this should be developed at work place through meeting, workshops and seminars for decision makers (Government of Kenya, 1997). In addition, the study done by World Bank (2012) revealed that, there is need to make sensitization through strengthening girls and boys clubs to increase their knowledge on gender, sexuality, HIV and AIDS, Career development skills to become more confident and assertive and providing them with small grants to improve school facilities, such as (latrines for boys and girls).

Addressing School and Education System Level Obstacles (Improving School Infrastructures) Multi- faceted and looks at both issues affecting teaching and learning and education management at all levels of education systems, some examples are; delivery training on gender friendly teaching materials production and providing material production to increase girl performance, increasing the number of teachers, particularly female teachers, at all levels of education, who are well trained and supported to provide quality education for girls and enrich their school experience through teacher training support and national level advocacy on teacher recruitment policies (World Bank, 2012).

Feeding Programs in Schools: Feeding programs seem to be important not only in retention and increase the performance of students but also serve as ingredient for promoting gender equality in access to education. The 22 study of Cardoso and Varner, (2006) in Brazil found the reason for about 33% of schools was dropout said suffered hunger in their school compared to 17% for those in school. The Girls education officer in Brazil states that with assistance from Word Food Program (WFP) and Catholic Relief Services (CRS) provide free lunches for school in district with lowest girls’ enrollment in the region found increase of girl’s enrolment in those districts.  Chiuri and  Kiurni (2005), suggested that in order to increase enrolment rate, retention and performance of student including girls there is need to initiate school •feeding programmes in Arid and Semi-Arid lands. This can act as catalyst to parents to encourage their children to school.

Guidance and Counseling Programs and Access to Girl’s Education: It is important to ensure constant guidance and counseling in order to increase girl’s enrolment, retention and performance. Barnora (2013) argued that with very limited access to vital information on sexual and reproductive health, including HIV/AIDS, both at home and the schools, school girls rely heavily on potentially inaccurate or harmful information about sex from peers, the media and internet as results are exposed to the risk of pregnancy and other sexually transmitted diseases. Therefore, in order to rescue girls from poor performance and dropout guidance and counseling services in schools is imperative.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings showed that based on the analyzed data from the Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2020, a government body which produces quarterly and annual statistical reports for all the ministries in Uganda, it is revealed that the enrolment, retention and performance of girls in Uganda’s secondary schools is good and does not differ significantly from that of the boys. Before the 1980s, parents preferred educating boys to girls but now they seem to have realized the need of educating girls equally like boys. Nevertheless, the documentary review reveals that in rural areas, some girls are married off at an early age and hence drop out of school and in some instances, girls’ enrollment is low. It is therefore suggested that parents, religious leaders, non-government organizations, as well as the government do more to educate the masses on the dangers of early marriages and school drop-out so that all girls who enroll in school can finish the six years of secondary school level.

Conflicts of Interest

This paper had no conflict of interest with funders

Funding

The author received no direct funding for this research

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