Examining the Effectiveness of the Water Resources Management Policy a Case Study of Lusaka, Zambia

Examining the Effectiveness of the Water Resources Management Policy a Case Study of Lusaka, Zambia

Paul Mwape., Kelvin Chibomba (PhD)

School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Information and Communications University Lusaka, Zambia

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90300130

Received: 26 February 2025; Accepted: 05 March 2025; Published: 04 April 2025

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the effectiveness of water resource management policies in Lusaka, Zambia, using a case study approach. The research aimed to evaluate the current state of water resources, assess the efficacy of existing policies and the role of citizens, and propose recommendations for improvement. Data was collected through a structured questionnaire administered to a sample of 50 respondents, including top management from road construction companies, middle and low management from LWS company, NGOs, and the Ministry of Finance (MOF). The analysis utilized SPSS software, with findings presented via frequency tables and pie charts. The study revealed that water availability in Lusaka is severely compromised, with many respondents reporting frequent shortages. Despite some residents having occasional disruptions, climate change and urbanization significantly exacerbate the issue. Water quality perceptions are mixed, with a notable portion of the population expressing concerns about the adequacy and safety of their supply. Government agencies are the primary stakeholders in policy formulation, with NGOs also contributing. While both groups generally view the policies positively, challenges such as policy rigidity, resource limitations, and inadequate data persist. Enhancing stakeholder engagement requires addressing these issues and making policies more adaptable. Examining the Effectiveness of Water Resources Management Policy in Lusaka, Zambia This study aims to critically evaluate the effectiveness of water resources management policies in Lusaka, Zambia. By analyzing existing policies, assessing their implementation, and considering the perspectives of key stakeholders, this research will identify strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities for improvement. The findings will contribute to a better understanding of water governance challenges in Lusaka and inform evidence-based policy recommendations for sustainable water management.

Key terms: policies and water resource management

INTRODUCTION

Background

Water is a crucial resource for Zambia, impacting agriculture, industry, and daily life. Effective management of water resources is essential for ensuring sustainable development and mitigating the effects of climate change. Zambia’s water resources management policy has undergone significant changes over the past decades. The introduction of the Water Resources Management Act of 2011 was a pivotal moment, aiming to promote sustainable utilization and management of the country’s water resources.

Statement of the Problem

The effectiveness of water resources management policies in Lusaka, Zambia, presents a critical challenge amidst increasing urbanization and climate variability. Despite policy frameworks aimed at sustainable water management, there is a lack of comprehensive assessment regarding their actual impact on water availability, quality, and equitable distribution in the capital city. According to recent statistics, Lusaka’s population is projected to reach 5 million by 2035, exacerbating pressure on water resources (Zambia Statistics Agency, 2023). Additionally, data reveals that as of 2022, only 65% of Lusaka’s residents have access to basic water services (World Bank, 2022). This situation underscores the urgency of evaluating the effectiveness of existing water management policies to address challenges such as water scarcity, pollution, and inadequate infrastructure

General objective

The general objective of the study is Examining the Effectiveness of Water Resources Management Policy in Zambia

Specific objectives

1. Establish the state of the water resource in Lusaka and the participation of residents in water resource management.
2. To evaluate the effectiveness of existing water management policies and the roles played by various stakeholders in water resource management.
3. Promote the sustainable use of water resources to ensure long-term availability and quality for all users.

Research questions

1. What is the current state of water resources management and the participation of residents in water resource management in Lusaka?
2. How effective are water management policies and the roles played by various stakeholders in water resource management?
3. How can water governance, technological innovation and public awareness campaigns be implemented to promote the sustainable use of water resources to ensure long-term availability and quality for all users

Conceptual frameworks

In this study, the conceptual framework will provide a structured approach to understanding the relationships between the independent variables (current state of water resources management, effectiveness of existing water management policies, and recommendations) and the dependent variable (effectiveness of water resources management policy). This independent variable represents the existing conditions related to water availability, quality, distribution, and infrastructure in Lusaka, Zambia. The conceptual framework will analyze how variations in these factors influence the effectiveness of water resources management policies. For example, if the current state indicates low access to clean water or high levels of pollution, it may hinder the overall effectiveness of policy implementation.

LITERATURE REVIEW

State of the water resources in Lusaka and the participation of residents in water resource management

The water resources in Lusaka Zambia are primarily governed by the Water Resources Management Act of 2011, which aims to ensure sustainable use and protection of water resources. Despite this legislative framework, several studies indicate significant gaps in implementation and enforcement. For instance, Nyambe et al. (2016) observed that the institutional frameworks for water management are often weak and under-resourced, leading to inadequate water monitoring and data collection. This shortfall hampers the ability to make informed decisions regarding water use and conservation.

The management of the Zambezi River Basin, one of the largest river systems in Zambia, presents a significant case study. According to a study by Chisola (2019), there are considerable challenges related to transboundary water governance. Zambia shares the Zambezi River with eight other countries, complicating coordinated management efforts. The Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM) was established to facilitate cooperation, but Chisola’s research indicates that political and economic disparities among member countries often lead to conflicts and suboptimal management practices.

Agricultural water use is another critical area. Agriculture accounts for about 77% of water withdrawal in Zambia, as highlighted by FAO (2017). Studies by Nkhoma and Mulwafu (2020) have shown that irrigation practices are often inefficient, with significant water losses due to outdated irrigation technologies and poor infrastructure maintenance. This inefficiency exacerbates water scarcity, particularly during dry seasons, affecting food security and rural livelihoods.

Moreover, climate change poses a significant threat to Zambia’s water resources. Research by Mulenga et al. (2017) indicates that changes in precipitation patterns and increased frequency of extreme weather events are likely to exacerbate water scarcity. Their empirical study suggests that adaptive water management strategies, including the development of climate-resilient infrastructure and improved water conservation practices, are crucial to mitigating these impacts. However, the study also points out that there is a lack of financial and technical capacity to implement these strategies effectively.

Hydroelectric power generation, which constitutes over 90% of Zambia’s electricity supply, is heavily dependent on water resources. The Kariba Dam, one of the largest hydroelectric projects in the world, has faced significant challenges due to fluctuating water levels. Chishimba et al. (2018) conducted a study on the impact of water variability on hydroelectric power generation and found that periods of drought have led to severe reductions in electricity output, causing widespread power shortages. This situation underscores the need for diversified energy sources and better water management practices to ensure energy security.

Urban water supply and sanitation are also areas of concern. According to a study by Kaliba et al. (2018), urban areas in Zambia suffer from inadequate water supply infrastructure, leading to intermittent water availability and poor water quality. The study highlights that many urban households rely on unsafe water sources, which poses significant public health risks. Additionally, wastewater treatment facilities are often insufficient, leading to environmental pollution and the contamination of water bodies.

Groundwater resources, which are critical for both rural and urban areas, face threats from over-extraction and pollution. Musonda and Ngoma (2017) conducted an empirical study on groundwater management in Lusaka, revealing that unregulated borehole drilling and industrial activities have led to the depletion and contamination of groundwater reserves. Their study emphasizes the need for stricter regulation and monitoring to ensure the sustainability of groundwater resources.

Community-based water management initiatives have shown promise in addressing some of these challenges. Research by Kaseka et al. (2019) found that involving local communities in water management decisions can lead to more sustainable and equitable water use. Their study of community-led water projects in rural Zambia demonstrated improved water access and conservation outcomes, suggesting that decentralizing water management could be a viable strategy for improving water governance.

Water quality is another significant issue. A study by Mumba et al. (2020) assessed the quality of surface water in major rivers and found that industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and inadequate wastewater treatment have led to high levels of pollution. This pollution affects not only human health but also aquatic ecosystems, reducing biodiversity and impacting fisheries, which are an important source of food and income for many Zambians.

Finally, the economic valuation of water resources is an emerging area of interest. Chileshe et al. (2021) explored the economic impacts of water scarcity on different sectors in Zambia, including agriculture, industry, and households. Their findings suggest that inadequate water management leads to significant economic losses, highlighting the need for better investment in water infrastructure and management practices. The study advocates for integrated water resources management (IWRM) approaches that consider economic, social, and environmental factors in decision-making processes. the current state of water resources management in Zambia is characterized by significant challenges and opportunities. Weak institutional frameworks, inefficient agricultural practices, climate change, and inadequate urban water infrastructure pose serious threats to water security. However, empirical studies suggest that strategies such as improving regulatory frameworks, investing in resilient infrastructure, promoting community-based management, and adopting integrated management approaches can help address these challenges. Effective water resources management is crucial for Zambia’s sustainable development, requiring coordinated efforts from government, communities, and international partners.

Effectiveness of existing water management policies and the roles played by various stakeholders in water resource management

A study by Shafie et al. (2020) examined the implementation of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Malaysia, highlighting its success in fostering collaboration across different sectors. The research emphasized that IWRM has led to more coordinated water resource planning and management, which has improved water use efficiency and reduced conflicts among water users. However, the study also noted challenges such as fragmented institutional frameworks and insufficient stakeholder engagement, which hinder the full potential of IWRM. In another study, Kassim et al. (2019) evaluated the effectiveness of water conservation policies in urban areas, particularly focusing on water pricing and public awareness campaigns.

The role of water pollution control measures was investigated by Abdul Hamid et al. (2021), who analysed the impact of regulatory frameworks on river water quality. Their research found that stricter enforcement of pollution control laws and increased monitoring activities have led to significant improvements in water quality in several key rivers. However, the study also pointed out that industrial discharges and agricultural runoff remain significant sources of pollution, indicating a need for more stringent controls and better agricultural practices.

A case study by Mahadi and Ebi (2018) on rural water supply management revealed that community-based water management systems have been effective in ensuring reliable water supply in rural areas. The study found that involving local communities in the management and maintenance of water supply systems has enhanced the sustainability and resilience of these systems. However, the researchers highlighted the need for ongoing technical and financial support from the government to sustain these community-based initiatives.

Make recommendations that can help in improving water resource management.

a study by Müller et al. (2018) emphasizes the importance of integrated water management approaches that consider both water quality and quantity aspects. They advocate for the implementation of holistic strategies that address pollution control, efficient water use, and ecosystem protection. Similarly, Schmidt et al. (2019) highlight the significance of participatory approaches involving stakeholders from diverse sectors in decision-making processes related to water management.

Secondly, addressing water scarcity concerns, a study by Becker and Schmid (2017) stresses the need for efficient water allocation mechanisms and the promotion of water-saving technologies. They suggest the adoption of water pricing mechanisms that reflect the true value of water resources and incentivize conservation practices among consumers and industries.

Thirdly, in terms of water infrastructure development, research by Wagner et al. (2020) underscores the importance of modernizing aging water supply systems and investing in innovative technologies for wastewater treatment and reuse. They argue that upgrading infrastructure can enhance water resilience and mitigate the impacts of climate change-induced water variability.

Moreover, ensuring water quality remains a key challenge. A study by Schneider et al. (2018) highlights the role of pollution control measures, emphasizing the need for stricter regulations on industrial discharges and agricultural runoff. They advocate for the implementation of comprehensive monitoring programs to track pollutant levels and assess the effectiveness of remediation efforts.

Furthermore, enhancing water governance structures is crucial for effective management. Research by Fischer et al. (2019) suggests strengthening institutional coordination among various governmental agencies responsible for water management. They recommend the establishment of clear mandates and collaborative platforms to facilitate information exchange and decision-making processes.

Additionally, promoting sustainable agricultural practices can contribute to water conservation efforts. A study by Meyer and Weber (2018) emphasizes the adoption of precision irrigation techniques and agroecological approaches that minimize water use while maintaining crop productivity. They argue that incentivizing sustainable farming practices through subsidies and educational programs can lead to significant water savings.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The research approach provides comprehensive insights into the effectiveness of budgeting tools in road construction projects. This study adopts a case study research approach due to its ability to offer a detailed analysis within a limited timeframe.

Sampling Design

In this study, we use the random sampling technique to collect data. Creswell (2005) defines random sampling as a subset of individuals that is randomly selected from a population. The goal is to obtain a sample that is representative of the larger population. We adopt the random sampling technique to gather respondents who answer the questionnaires. According to Kothari (2004), the sampling technique is used because it guarantees the desired representation of the relevant subgroups.

Sample Size Determination

A sample of 50 respondents from LWS company, NGOs and MOF is drawn from a population about which the researcher is interested in obtaining information to arrive at a conclusion.

Data Collection Methods

Primary data is collected through a structured questionnaire that is prepared. The questionnaire method is preferred since it ensures a high response rate and accurate sampling. The researcher directs the questions to the variables as evident in the conceptual framework. The questionnaires include both open-ended and closed-ended questions.

Data Analysis

To examine the data gathered for the study, quantitative methodologies are used. To analyze the quantitative data, descriptive statistics comprising frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation are calculated using SPSS software.

PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS

Background information

Table 4.1.1 marital status

The study requested respondents to indicate their marital status. The data collected showed that 60% of the majority respondents indicated that they were single. It is important to note that the term “majority respondents” implies that the study population had a larger proportion of individuals who identified as single. Additionally, the data revealed that 40% of the respondents indicated that they were female. It is important to note that gender and marital status are two distinct demographic variables. respondents (50%) fell within the age range of 30 to 40 years old. This suggests that the study is most representative of individuals in their prime working years. It is also noteworthy that 20% of the respondents fell between the ages of 25 to 30 years old, which is a significant proportion of the sample. This suggests that the study may have captured the perspectives of younger adults who are starting their careers or are in the early stages of their professional lives. Additionally, 10% of the respondents indicated that they were between the ages of 40 to 50 years old, while another 10% indicated they were 60 years old or above. This suggests that the study captured a range of perspectives from individuals who may have more experience in their careers and are potentially nearing retirement age.

Table 4.2.1 What is the current status of water availability in Lusaka?

The study requested respondent to indicate what is the current status of water availability in Lusaka. 57.5% of the majority respondent indicated scare with frequent shortages, 35% of the respondent indicated critical and unable to meet demand and 7.5% of the respondent indicated adequate but with occasional shortages.

Table 4.2.2 How do residents in Lusaka perceive the quality of their water supply

The study requested respondent to indicate  How do residents in Lusaka perceive the quality of their water supply. 53% of the majority respondent indicated very high quality, 22.5% of the respondent indicated poor quality and 22.5% of the respondent indicated acceptable quality but with significant concerns.

Figure 4.2.3 What are the key factors influencing water scarcity in [region/country]?

The study requested respondent to indicate what are the key factors influencing water scarcity in region/country.60% of the majority respondent indicated climate change impacts and 40% of the respondent indicated population growth and urbanization.

Figure 4.2.4 How effective are current water conservation strategies in [region/country]?

The study requested respondent to indicate How effective are current water conservation strategies in region/country. 57.5% of the majority respondent indicated very effective, 25% of the respondent indicated effective and 17.5% of the respondent indicated moderate.

Table 4.2.5 What are the socio-economic implications of water shortages in [region/country]

The study requested respondent to indicate what are the socio-economic implications of water shortages in region/country. 62.5% of the majority respondent indicated impact on livelihoods and employment, 25% of the respondent indicated health consequences and 12.5% of the respondent indicated migration and displacement.

Figure 4.2.6 What are the primary sources of water for residents in Lusaka?

The study requested respondent to indicate What are the primary sources of water for residents in Lusaka. 60% of the majority respondent indicated boreholes and 40% of the respondent indicated LLC supply.

Table 4.3.1 What are the primary goals of current water management policies in your region?

The study requested respondent to indicate  What are the primary goals of current water management policies in your region. 37.5% of the majority respondent indicated equity in water distribution, 32.5% of the respondent indicated  economic efficiency and 30% of the respondent indicated sustainability.

Figure 4.3.2 How effective are the existing water management policies in addressing water scarcity issues?

The study requested respondent to indicate How effective are the existing water management policies in addressing water scarcity issues. 57.5% of the majority respondent indicated very effective, 25% of the respondent indicated effective and 17.5% of the respondent indicated moderate.

Table 4.3.3 Which stakeholders are most actively involved in the formulation of water management policies?

The study requested respondent to indicate  Which stakeholders are most actively involved in the formulation of water management policies. 77.5% of the majority respondent indicated government agencies and 22.5% of the respondent indicated NON governmental organizations.

Figure 4.3.4 How do different stakeholders perceive the effectiveness of current water management policies?

The study requested respondent to indicate how different stakeholders perceive the effectiveness of current water management policies. 70% of the majority respondent indicated government agencies highly positive and 30% of the NGOs moderately positive.

Table 4.3.6 What improvements could be made to existing water management policies to enhance stakeholder engagement?

The study requested to indicate what improvements could be made to existing water management policies to enhance stakeholder engagement. 40% of the majority respondent indicated policy rigidity, 37.5% of the respondent indicated lack of resources and 22.5% of the respondent indicated insufficient data.

Recommendations that can help in improving water resource management

4.4.1 What are the most effective strategies for reducing water wastage in urban areas?

The study requested respondent to indicate What are the most effective strategies for reducing water wastage in urban areas. 47.5% of the majority respondent indicated Enhancing leak detection and repair systems, 32.5% of the respondent indicated Implementing advanced metering infrastructure and 20% of the respondent indicated Increasing public awareness and education.

Table 4.4.2 How can policies be improved to promote sustainable agricultural water use?

The study requested respondent to indicate how can policies be improved to promote sustainable agricultural water use. 50% of the majority respondent indicated providing training and resources for farmers and 17.5% of the respondent indicated research and development in drought-resistant crops.

What role do community-based water management programs play in improving water resource management?

The study requested respondent to indicate what role do community-based water management programs play in improving water resource management. 77.5% of the majority respondent indicated enhancing local knowledge and practices and 22.5% of the increasing community engagement and ownership.

Tables 4.4.4 How can technology be leveraged to optimize water resource management in industrial processes?

The study requested respondent to indicate How can technology be leveraged to optimize water resource management in industrial processes. 52.5% of the majority respondent indicated Adopting water recycling and reuse technologies, 30% of the respondent indicated Promoting research and development in new technologies and 17.5% of the respondent indicated Implementing real-time monitoring systems.

Table 4.4.5 What are the most effective methods for enhancing groundwater recharge?

The study requested respondent to indicate what are the most effective methods for enhancing groundwater recharge. 40% of the majority respondent indicated Creating shared data and information systems, 32.5% of the respondent indicate Establishing joint management agreements and 27.5% of the respondent indicated Developing joint infrastructure projects.

DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

State of the water resource in Lusaka and the participation of residents in water resource management

In exploring the current status of water availability in Lusaka, a recent study reveals a nuanced and concerning picture of the region’s water challenges. The majority of respondents, 57.5%, reported that water availability in Lusaka is characterized by scarcity and frequent shortages. This reflects a broader trend of increasing pressure on water resources, exacerbated by factors such as population growth and climate change. Scarcity with frequent shortages indicates a systemic issue where the existing water infrastructure is insufficient to meet the needs of the population, leading to regular and disruptive shortages. This situation underscores the urgent need for interventions that address both the immediate and long-term water needs of the city.

A significant portion of the respondents, 35%, described the water situation as critical and unable to meet demand. This indicates that water resources are not just scarce but are critically insufficient to satisfy the needs of the population, highlighting an acute crisis that requires immediate attention. This critical status of water availability suggests that the infrastructure and resource management strategies in place are failing to cope with the growing demands of Lusaka’s residents. The implications of such a status are profound, affecting everything from daily living conditions to economic development and public health. The inability to meet demand can lead to severe consequences, including heightened competition for water resources, increased costs, and potential conflicts over access.

In contrast, 7.5% of respondents reported that water availability is adequate but with occasional shortages. While this perspective reflects a somewhat better situation compared to the majority, it still points to underlying issues with the consistency and reliability of water supply. Even though the water supply might generally meet demand, occasional shortages indicate that the system is not robust enough to handle fluctuations or unexpected increases in demand. This scenario suggests a need for improvements in water storage, distribution systems, and overall management to ensure a more reliable and consistent supply.

Population growth and urbanization were cited by 40% of respondents as significant factors contributing to water scarcity. As Lusaka’s population expands and the city continues to urbanize, the demand for water increases, putting additional pressure on existing resources. Rapid urbanization can lead to higher water consumption, increased waste, and greater strain on water infrastructure. This dynamic requires strategic planning to accommodate growing needs, including expanding water supply infrastructure, improving efficiency in water use, and promoting sustainable urban development practices.

The study on water conservation strategies and their socio-economic implications in Lusaka provides insightful data on how these issues impact the region. When asked about the effectiveness of current water conservation strategies, a significant majority of respondents 57.5% indicated that these strategies are very effective. This high level of approval suggests that the implemented measures are largely successful in managing and conserving water resources. This could reflect well-structured policies, effective public awareness campaigns, or successful community engagement efforts aimed at reducing water wastage and enhancing conservation practices. However, 25% of respondents considered these strategies to be effective but not without room for improvement. This indicates that while the current strategies are yielding positive results, there may be areas where they fall short or where further enhancements could bolster their effectiveness. A smaller portion, 17.5%, rated the strategies as moderate in effectiveness, suggesting that these respondents may perceive a need for more substantial changes or more aggressive implementation to achieve the desired outcomes.

In exploring the socio-economic implications of water shortages, the study reveals that the majority of respondents 62.5% believe that water shortages significantly impact livelihoods and employment. This finding underscores the critical role water plays in daily life and economic stability. Water scarcity can directly affect various sectors, including agriculture, which is a major livelihood source for many, and can lead to job losses and reduced income opportunities. Such impacts can also ripple through the economy, affecting businesses and potentially leading to broader economic challenges. In contrast, 25% of respondents pointed to health consequences as a significant concern, highlighting how inadequate water supply can lead to poor sanitation, increased prevalence of waterborne diseases, and overall health deterioration. The focus on health implications reflects growing awareness of the interconnectedness between water availability and public health. Finally, 12.5% of respondents indicated that migration and displacement are significant socio-economic implications. Water shortages can drive people to relocate in search of better living conditions, which can strain resources in other areas and lead to socio-political challenges.

Regarding the primary sources of water for residents in Lusaka, the study shows that 60% of respondents rely on boreholes. Boreholes are often a crucial alternative in areas with unreliable or inadequate municipal water supplies, providing a more consistent and independent source of water for many households. This preference for boreholes could be indicative of issues with the reliability or accessibility of other sources. On the other hand, 40% of respondents rely on the LLC (Lusaka Water and Sewerage Company) supply, suggesting that despite the challenges, a significant portion of the population still depends on the municipal system for their water needs. The reliance on LLC supply could reflect efforts to improve municipal water services or indicate that, despite challenges, it remains a viable source for many residents. Overall, the study highlights a complex interplay between water conservation strategies, socio-economic impacts, and primary water sources in Lusaka. The effectiveness of conservation efforts, while largely positive, also reveals areas needing improvement. The socio-economic implications of water shortages reveal significant impacts on livelihoods, health, and migration patterns. The reliance on both boreholes and municipal supplies underscores the diverse ways in which residents adapt to water availability challenges. This comprehensive analysis provides a valuable perspective on the current state of water management and its broader effects on the Lusaka community.

Effectiveness of existing water management policies and the roles played by various stakeholders in water resource management

In examining the primary goals of current water management policies in the region, the study reveals that a significant portion of respondents prioritize equity in water distribution. Specifically, 37.5% of the participants identified equity as the foremost objective of these policies. This emphasis on fairness underscores a collective recognition of the need to ensure that water resources are allocated justly among various segments of the population. The focus on equity highlights concerns about disparities in water access and the importance of addressing these imbalances to foster social cohesion and inclusivity.

Following closely, 32.5% of respondents pointed to economic efficiency as a primary goal of water management policies. This reflects a strong awareness of the necessity to optimize the use of water resources to achieve the most cost-effective outcomes. Economic efficiency involves not only reducing wastage and enhancing productivity but also ensuring that water management practices contribute to broader economic objectives. This goal aligns with the growing recognition of water as a critical economic asset that can significantly impact various sectors, from agriculture to industry, and emphasizes the need for policies that support sustainable economic development.

A substantial 30% of respondents indicated sustainability as a key goal of water management policies. This focus on sustainability reflects a broader global concern for long-term resource preservation and environmental stewardship. By prioritizing sustainability, policies aim to ensure that water resources are managed in a way that meets current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This goal encompasses a range of strategies, including the protection of water sources, the promotion of conservation practices, and the integration of sustainable practices into water management frameworks.

In contrast, 22.5% of respondents recognized non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as active participants in the policy formulation process. While this percentage is smaller, it highlights the crucial role that NGOs play in advocating for and contributing to water management policies. NGOs often bring unique perspectives and expertise to the table, particularly in areas related to community needs, environmental conservation, and sustainable practices. Their involvement can help ensure that policies are not only technically sound but also socially equitable and environmentally responsible.

Regarding the effectiveness of current water management policies, the study revealed differing perceptions among stakeholders. A notable 70% of respondents felt that government agencies viewed the existing policies with high positivity. This suggests that government bodies are largely satisfied with the current state of water management policies, possibly due to successful implementation, perceived efficacy, or alignment with broader governance objectives. This high level of satisfaction among government agencies could be attributed to their direct involvement in policy design and execution, which may lead to a more favorable view of the policies they have helped create. On the other hand, 30% of respondents associated with NGOs perceived the policies as only moderately positive. This discrepancy in perception could reflect differences in priorities or experiences between government agencies and NGOs. NGOs may be more critical of policies if they believe that certain aspects are inadequately addressed or if there are gaps in policy implementation that affect their areas of focus, such as community engagement or environmental protection.

Promoting the sustainable use of water resources to ensure long-term availability and quality for all users.

The findings from the study on strategies for reducing water wastage in urban areas reveal several key insights into effective measures that can be taken to address this pressing issue. Among the strategies proposed by respondents, the most frequently endorsed was enhancing leak detection and repair systems, with 47.5% of participants identifying it as a crucial method. This approach focuses on the identification and rectification of leaks within urban water distribution systems, which are often a significant source of water loss. By improving the technologies and methodologies used to detect and repair leaks, urban areas can considerably reduce the amount of water wasted, ensuring that a higher proportion of the available supply reaches its intended users. Advances in leak detection technologies, such as acoustic sensors and pressure management systems, can facilitate more efficient and timely repairs, thus minimizing water losses.

Another notable strategy, endorsed by 32.5% of respondents, is the implementation of advanced metering infrastructure. This approach involves the use of sophisticated metering technologies that can provide more accurate and real-time data on water usage. Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) systems enable better monitoring of water consumption patterns and can help identify areas of excessive use or potential wastage. By integrating AMI with automated systems, urban areas can enhance their ability to manage and control water resources more effectively. This not only aids in reducing wastage but also provides valuable data that can be used to inform water management policies and practices.

Another significant area for policy improvement, as indicated by 17.5% of respondents, is research and development in drought-resistant crops. Developing crops that are resilient to drought conditions can play a crucial role in ensuring agricultural sustainability in the face of water scarcity. Research into drought-resistant varieties can lead to the creation of crops that require less water while still yielding high productivity. Supporting research and development in this area can help farmers adapt to changing environmental conditions and reduce their reliance on water resources.  By addressing these areas, policymakers and stakeholders can work towards more effective and sustainable management of water resources, ultimately contributing to improved water security and resilience in both urban and agricultural contexts. The study aimed to investigate several facets of water resource management, particularly focusing on the role of community-based programs, the integration of technology in industrial processes, and methods to enhance groundwater recharge. The findings provide a comprehensive view of current practices and attitudes toward water management, highlighting key areas of consensus and divergence among respondents.

Community-based water management programs emerged as a significant factor in improving water resource management, with a clear majority of respondents—77.5%—identifying the enhancement of local knowledge and practices as the primary benefit. This suggests that such programs are effective in building a deeper understanding among local communities about water conservation and sustainable management practices. By focusing on educating residents and incorporating traditional knowledge, these programs help tailor water management strategies to local conditions and needs. The empowerment of local communities through education not only fosters more responsible water use but also promotes sustainable practices that can be adapted to changing environmental conditions.

On the other hand, 22.5% of respondents highlighted the importance of increasing community engagement and ownership. This perspective underscores the need for active participation from community members in water management decisions and actions. Engaging local stakeholders ensures that water management programs are more inclusive and responsive to the specific needs of the community. By fostering a sense of ownership, these programs can enhance the effectiveness of water management strategies, as residents are more likely to support and adhere to practices that they have a role in shaping.

The study also explored how technology can be leveraged to optimize water resource management in industrial processes. The majority of respondents, 52.5%, pointed to the adoption of water recycling and reuse technologies as the most effective technological solution. This preference reflects a growing recognition of the importance of reducing water wastage and reusing water within industrial processes. Water recycling and reuse not only mitigate the strain on freshwater resources but also offer economic benefits by lowering the cost of water procurement and treatment. Implementing such technologies can lead to significant improvements in water efficiency and sustainability in industrial operations.

Another 30% of respondents emphasized the need to promote research and development in new technologies. This group believes that continuous innovation is crucial for advancing water management practices. By investing in research and development, industries can discover novel solutions and technologies that address emerging challenges in water management. This approach aligns with broader trends in technology-driven sustainability, where innovation plays a critical role in improving efficiency and environmental performance.

Additionally, 17.5% of respondents supported the implementation of real-time monitoring systems. These systems can provide valuable data on water usage, quality, and availability, allowing for timely interventions and more informed decision-making. Real-time monitoring enables industries to track water resources more accurately and respond quickly to any issues that arise, thus optimizing water use and reducing the risk of over-extraction or contamination.

Regarding groundwater recharge, the study sought to identify the most effective methods for enhancing this critical aspect of water resource management. The results revealed that 40% of respondents favored creating shared data and information systems. This method involves pooling resources and data from various stakeholders to improve the management of groundwater resources. By sharing information, stakeholders can develop a more comprehensive understanding of groundwater conditions and implement more effective recharge strategies.

Another 32.5% of respondents supported the establishment of joint management agreements. These agreements typically involve collaborations between different organizations or sectors to manage groundwater resources collectively. Joint management agreements can facilitate coordinated efforts in groundwater recharge and ensure that different interests and needs are considered in the management process. This collaborative approach can enhance the effectiveness of recharge initiatives and promote more sustainable groundwater management practices.

Finally, 27.5% of respondents indicated that developing joint infrastructure projects is an effective method for enhancing groundwater recharge. Such projects may include the construction of recharge wells, infiltration basins, or other infrastructure designed to increase groundwater levels. By investing in shared infrastructure, stakeholders can contribute to improved groundwater recharge and support long-term sustainability goals. In summary, the study highlights several key findings in water resource management. Community-based water management programs are seen as crucial for enhancing local knowledge and practices, while technology plays a significant role in optimizing industrial water use through recycling, innovation, and real-time monitoring. For groundwater recharge, creating shared data systems, establishing joint management agreements, and developing joint infrastructure projects are identified as effective methods. These findings reflect a broad recognition of the need for both community engagement and technological innovation in managing water resources effectively.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

The state of water resources in Lusaka reveals a concerning scenario, with water availability marked by frequent shortages. While some residents experience only occasional disruptions, the majority face more persistent scarcity. This has been exacerbated by factors such as climate change, which continues to disrupt natural water cycles, and the rapid urbanization of the region, which has increased water demand. The overall perception of water quality is somewhat mixed, with a notable portion of residents expressing satisfaction with the quality of their supply. However, others voice significant concerns, particularly regarding the impact of poor quality on health and daily living conditions.

Water management policies in Lusaka are primarily focused on ensuring equitable distribution, economic efficiency, and sustainability. Although these policies have had some success in addressing water scarcity, their effectiveness is uneven across different sectors.

Improving water resource management in Lusaka will require a multi-faceted approach. Key strategies for reducing water wastage include enhancing leak detection and repair systems, which would significantly reduce unnecessary water loss, and the implementation of advanced metering infrastructure to promote efficiency.

Recommendations

Strengthen and expand existing water conservation strategies, focusing on both public education and technical solutions to reduce wastage.

Revise policies to address stakeholder concerns such as policy rigidity and lack of resources. Incorporate more flexible and adaptive measures that can respond to changing water management needs.

Invest in technologies and systems for detecting and repairing leaks in urban water systems to reduce wastage and improve efficiency.

Foster greater community involvement and ownership in water management programs to boost effectiveness and sustainability.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my research supervisor for his invaluable guidance, support, and encouragement throughout the course of this research project. Your expertise, feedback, and advice have been instrumental in shaping the direction of my work and I am truly grateful for the time and effort you have dedicated to guiding me through this process.

I would also like to extend my sincere gratitude to all the respondents who generously participated in this study. Your willingness to share your insights, experiences, and perspectives has been essential in helping me gather the data needed to complete this research. Your contributions are deeply appreciated and have been vital to the success of this project.

I am also grateful to my friends, family, and colleagues who have provided me with unwavering support and encouragement throughout this research journey. Your words of encouragement, understanding, and patience have been a source of strength and motivation for me, and I am truly grateful for your unwavering support.

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