Exploring Plant Metaphors in Quranic Da’wah: An Analysis of the Al-Mathal Linguistic Style

Exploring Plant Metaphors in Quranic Da’wah: An Analysis of the Al-Mathal Linguistic Style

Saipolbarin Ramli^1*, Mohd nor Adli Osman², Mohammad Taufiq Abdul Ghani³, Muhammad Imran Ibrahim⁴

^1,3Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia

²Universiti Sains Malaysia

⁴Takmir Coordinator Officer for the Federal Territory

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9010172

Received: 04 January 2025; Accepted: 08 January 2025; Published: 10 February 2025

ABSTRACT

The Al-Qur’an dedicates approximately 1,300 verses-nearly one-sixth of its content-to describing the creation of beings, with plant metaphors constituting around 15%. These metaphors play a significant role in conveying Allah’s messages, utilizing the relatable and universal nature of plants to communicate profound spiritual, ethical, and moral lessons. This study aims to analyze Quranic verses featuring plant metaphors to understand their symbolic and functional significance within the Quranic Da’wah methodology. The research employs a qualitative approach, combining historical and documentary methods with extensive library research to collect data. Digital linguistic tools such as ATLAS.ti were utilized to systematically categorize and analyze the verses, identifying linguistic patterns and metaphorical usage. The analysis was further enriched by integrating classical and contemporary interpretations from renowned Islamic scholars, alongside interdisciplinary perspectives, including literary criticism and ecological theology. Key findings reveal nine Quranic verses employing plant metaphors, categorized into five thematic topics: the light of Almighty Allah, the character of Prophet Muhammad PBUH and his companions, the word of Tawhid, the comparison of human life processes to plant growth, and the depiction of wealth and charity through plant imagery. These metaphors not only illustrate divine truths but also enhance the Quran’s linguistic beauty, making it a powerful tool for Dawah. The study concludes that plant metaphors are pivotal in Quranic discourse, serving as a bridge between abstract spiritual concepts and tangible, relatable imagery. Their application extends beyond textual analysis, demonstrating practical relevance in Dawah activities and resonating deeply with diverse cultural and ecological contexts. By highlighting the enduring significance of these metaphors, the research underscores their role in enriching Quranic teachings and fostering a deeper understanding of its messages.

Keywords: Quranic Da’wah, Plant Metaphors, Al-Mathal Language Style, Discourse Analysis

INTRODUCTION

The Quran, revealed to Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), is a divine miracle and a profound testament to the existence and omnipotence of Allah. It serves as a comprehensive guide, offering wisdom and knowledge to lead humanity on a righteous path. Among its numerous themes, the creation and significance of various beings hold a central place, with approximately 1,300 verses dedicated to this subject. Of these, plant metaphors constitute nearly 15%, underscoring their vital role in conveying divine messages.

Plants, being integral to human life, are not merely referenced in the Quran as botanical entities. Instead, they are intricately woven into its narrative to communicate moral, ethical, and spiritual lessons. The Quran employs plant imagery in two primary ways: directly, in depictions of paradise and hell, and metaphorically, as vehicles for conveying complex ideas and teachings. This dual usage enriches the Quranic discourse, enhancing the reader’s comprehension and reflection while showcasing its linguistic elegance and artistic depth.

One distinctive Quranic linguistic style that prominently features plant elements is the al-Mathal (اَلْمَثَلُ) style. This style, akin to similes and metaphors, employs comparisons and analogies to elucidate deeper meanings and facilitate understanding. Al-Mathal is particularly effective in Dawah—the act of inviting others to understand and embrace Islam—as it leverages familiar and relatable imagery to communicate profound truths. The use of plant metaphors within this style not only strengthens the Quran’s message but also reflects its beauty and sophistication.

This study examines the Quran’s use of plant metaphors through discourse analysis, focusing on their role in Dawah methodology. It adopts a qualitative approach grounded in historical and documentary methods, supported by extensive library research, and considers interpretations from both classical and contemporary scholars. Key examples include the fig and olive in Surah At-Tin (95:1–3), symbolizing blessings and nourishment; the date palm in Surah Maryam (19:25–26), illustrating divine provision; and the grapevine in Surah An-Nahl (16:11), emphasizing Allah’s sustenance. Additionally, the tree of Zaqqum in Surah As-Saffat (37:62–65) serves as a stark warning of Hell’s torment, while gardens beneath which rivers flow, as described in Surah Al-Baqarah (2:25), symbolize the eternal rewards of Paradise.

Through these examples, this study highlights how the Quran’s use of plant metaphors enriches its linguistic dimensions, reinforces faith, and serves as a compelling tool for Dawah. By examining these metaphors, the study aims to illuminate their significance in communicating spiritual, ethical, and moral teachings to humanity.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Data Collection

This study employs a qualitative research approach, focusing on discourse analysis to examine Quranic verses that feature plant metaphors. Primary data were collected using historical and documentary methods, involving an in-depth review of classical and contemporary Islamic texts, tafsir (exegeses), and scholarly commentaries. These methods were complemented by extensive library research to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the Quran’s linguistic and thematic use of plant imagery.

Data Analysis

The data analysis was conducted using ATLAS.ti, a qualitative data analysis software, to systematically organize, categorize, and interpret the Quranic verses. Using this tool, the identified verses were coded into thematic categories based on their metaphorical and symbolic roles. These categories include:

1. Depiction of plants with the light of Almighty Allah
2. Representation of Prophet Muhammad PBUH and his companions
3. Association of plants with the word of Tawhid
4. Comparison of human life processes to plant growth and cycles
5. Illustration of wealth and charity through plant metaphors

ATLAS.ti enabled a detailed examination of linguistic patterns and thematic linkages across the verses, facilitating deeper insights into the Quranic narrative. The software’s visualization tools were also used to map connections between plant metaphors and their contextual applications in Dawah methodology.

Scholarly Framework and Triangulation

The analysis drew upon interpretations from prominent Islamic scholars such as Ibn Kathir, Al-Qurtubi, Sayyid Qutb, and Rashid Rida. To provide a multidisciplinary perspective, the study incorporated complementary viewpoints from literary criticism and ecological theology, enriching the understanding of Quranic metaphors. This methodological triangulation ensured a well-rounded and robust analysis.

Practical Applications and Contextualization 

In addition to textual analysis, the study explored real-world applications of plant metaphors in Dawah activities, such as sermons and educational programs. By linking these metaphors to cultural and ecological contexts, the research demonstrated their practical relevance and resonance with diverse audiences.

Comparative and Quantitative Analysis

The study incorporated comparative analysis by examining plant metaphors in other religious texts, such as the Bible and Torah, situating Quranic metaphors within a broader interfaith framework. Additionally, quantitative analysis was conducted using ATLAS.ti to calculate the frequency and thematic distribution of specific metaphors, providing empirical support for the findings.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Research on the Al-Mathal (اَلْمَثَلُ) style in the Quran highlights its pivotal role in conveying spiritual, moral, and ethical teachings. This stylistic approach employs similes and metaphors to simplify abstract concepts, making them more relatable and accessible to readers. By drawing on familiar imagery and comparisons, the Al-Mathal style bridges the gap between divine messages and human understanding. Among its most effective features is the use of everyday elements, such as plants, which resonate universally and strengthen the connection between the Quranic message and the reader’s personal experiences. Al-Azami (2020) notes that plant metaphors in the Quran reinforce faith, clarify divine truths, and guide behavior in an impactful and relatable manner.

The Al-Mathal style incorporates three core components: simile, representation, and wisdom. Similes create direct comparisons using terms like “as” or “like,” elucidating abstract spiritual concepts by associating them with tangible examples. Hussein (2019) explains that similes effectively make complex ideas accessible and memorable. Representation, through vivid imagery and symbolic storytelling, captures attention and facilitates comprehension. This element allows readers to engage more deeply with the text and its meanings (Al-Azami, 2020). Finally, wisdom is integrated into these comparisons and representations, embedding moral and ethical lessons that resonate with readers over time. Yusuf (2021) emphasizes that the combination of these elements makes the Al-Mathal style an invaluable tool for communicating divine guidance and shaping individual and societal values.

The Quran elevates the Al-Mathal style beyond traditional literary applications. While poets and writers have historically used similes and metaphors to evoke emotions and convey abstract ideas, the Quran infuses this linguistic tradition with divine purpose. Hussein (2019) highlights that the Quran’s use of the Al-Mathal style serves as a medium for transmitting spiritual insights and moral directives. Plant imagery, in particular, stands out for its richness and universality, illustrating themes such as the interconnectedness of creation, the cyclical nature of life, and humanity’s role in maintaining spiritual and ethical balance.

Plant metaphors in the Quran are notable for their thematic depth and diversity. They are utilized in at least nine key verses, grouped into five main themes. The first theme involves the depiction of plants with the light of Allah, symbolizing divine guidance, purity, and growth. The second theme focuses on the character of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his companions, with plants representing their virtues, resilience, and productivity. The third theme links plants with the word of Tawhid (monotheism), emphasizing its nurturing and sustaining power. The fourth theme compares human life processes to the growth and decay of plants, underscoring the transient nature of worldly existence and the importance of eternal values. Lastly, the fifth theme illustrates acts of charity and generosity through plant imagery, likening them to seeds that yield abundant rewards.

Both classical and contemporary scholars have extensively analyzed these plant metaphors. Foundational Islamic commentators such as Ibn Kathir and Al-Qurtubi provided detailed exegeses on their theological and moral implications. Modern scholars, including Al-Azami (2020), Yusuf (2021), and Hussein (2019), have further explored the stylistic and literary dimensions of plant metaphors. These studies highlight how the Quran uses relatable and universal imagery to communicate profound spiritual principles. By drawing connections between abstract ideas and tangible elements, such as plants, the Quran enhances its linguistic beauty and ensures its messages resonate deeply with believers.

In summary, the Al-Mathal style exemplifies the Quran’s linguistic sophistication and its capacity to communicate complex ideas through vivid and relatable imagery. Plant metaphors, in particular, serve as a powerful bridge between spiritual truths and human experiences, enriching the Quran’s narrative and deepening its impact. By synthesizing classical and contemporary scholarship, this review demonstrates the enduring significance of plant metaphors in Quranic discourse, emphasizing their role in reinforcing faith, instilling moral values, and guiding behavior across diverse cultural and ecological contexts.

THE RHETORICAL DEVICE OF AL-MATHAL IN ARABIC LITERATURE AND THE QURAN

The rhetorical device of al-Mathal holds a pivotal role in both Arabic literature and the Quran. In literary contexts, it serves as a powerful tool for poets and writers to convey profound meanings and evoke emotions through vivid imagery and nuanced comparisons. This stylistic feature enriches Arabic literary traditions by enhancing their expressive depth and aesthetic appeal (Hussein, 2019). By crafting relatable and tangible images, al-Mathal makes abstract ideas more comprehensible, fostering a deeper engagement with the text.

In the Quran, al-Mathal is employed extensively to communicate divine messages and spiritual truths. Drawing on elements from everyday life, the Quran uses this device to present profound insights in a manner that resonates with its audience. This approach establishes a strong connection between the divine message and the readers’ lived experiences, thus reinforcing the Quran’s moral teachings and guidance (Al-Azami, 2020).

The use of familiar imagery in al-Mathal enables believers to internalize and reflect upon the spiritual and ethical lessons embedded in the Quran. Studying this rhetorical device involves analyzing both historical and contemporary perspectives to uncover its purpose and significance. Scholars examine classical texts and exegetical works to understand the principles and techniques underlying the use of al-Mathal.

One of the most notable examples of al-Mathal in the Quran is found in Surah An-Nur (24:35):

“Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The example of His light is like a niche within which is a lamp; the lamp is within glass, the glass as if it were a pearly [white] star lit from [the oil of] a blessed olive tree, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil would almost glow even if untouched by fire. Light upon light. Allah guides to His light whom He wills. And Allah presents examples for the people, and Allah is Knowing of all things” (Quran 24:35).

This verse employs the imagery of light and a lamp to symbolize divine guidance and knowledge, transforming an abstract concept into a vivid and relatable metaphor. Through such examples, the Quran illustrates its profound messages in ways that resonate deeply with human understanding. The study of al-Mathal thus reveals its enduring relevance and effectiveness as a rhetorical device in conveying complex ideas with clarity and impact.

FINDING AND DISCUSSION

Plant Imagery in the Al-Mathal Style

The Quran employs the al-Mathal style as a rhetorical device to communicate profound spiritual and moral truths through vivid and relatable imagery. Among its most evocative elements is the use of plant imagery, which resonates deeply with readers due to its accessibility and connection to everyday life. The findings reveal that plant imagery in the Quran is utilized across five thematic contexts: depicting divine light, portraying the character of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his companions, illustrating Tawhid (monotheism), representing the transience of worldly life, and symbolizing the outcomes of wealth expenditure. This discussion explores these themes descriptively, highlighting their significance in deepening believers’ understanding of Quranic teachings. Nine key verses use plant imagery, categorized into five thematic topics:

1. Depiction of plants with the light of Almighty Allah
2. Depiction of the character of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his companions
3. Depiction of plants with the word of Tawhid (monotheism)
4. Depiction of worldly life as plants
5. Depiction of spending wealth through the metaphor of plants

Depiction of Plants with the Light of Almighty Allah 

Surah Al-Nur (24:35) presents a sophisticated metaphor intertwining plant imagery with the concept of divine light. The verse describes a niche containing a lamp fueled by olive oil derived from a blessed olive tree. This imagery, though rooted in tangible objects, conveys profound spiritual truths.

The niche is depicted as a sacred vessel, akin to the chest of a believer, where divine light resides. The lamp, crafted from transparent glass, symbolizes the believer’s heart-pure, steadfast, and capable of reflecting the light of Almighty Allah. The olive oil, noted for its inherent luminescence even without fire, represents the believer’s innate readiness to receive and amplify divine guidance.

At the core of this metaphor is the concept of “light upon light” (نُورٌ عَلَى نُورٍ), signifying compounded illumination. Ibn Qayyim (1948) explains this as the harmonious interaction between a believer’s inner faith and the external guidance provided by Allah. The olive tree, a recurring symbol of longevity and productivity, further reinforces the theme of enduring faith. Its radiance, described as self-sustaining, symbolizes the intrinsic purity of divine guidance, which benefits humanity without external stimulation.

This intricate portrayal connects spiritual enlightenment to familiar physical elements, making abstract concepts accessible and emotionally resonant for believers. The layered imagery emphasizes the necessity of nurturing one’s faith, likening it to tending an olive tree-requiring care, dedication, and consistent effort to yield its light.

Depiction of the Character of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and His Companions 

Surah Al-Fath (48:29) utilizes plant imagery to depict the collective growth of Islam, beginning with Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as the foundational seed and expanding to include his companions. The metaphor captures the organic progression of faith from initial fragility to eventual strength and resilience.

The companions are described through dual perspectives rooted in the Torah and the Gospel, reflecting their universal virtues within the broader Abrahamic tradition. Their growth is likened to a seed sprouting into a robust plant under the nurturing guidance of the Prophet. This process signifies the companions’ moral and spiritual development, with their faith and character maturing over time.

Their unwavering devotion is symbolized by the marks of prostration on their faces, tangible evidence of their piety and submission to Allah. This physical manifestation reflects their profound spiritual commitment, which formed the backbone of the early Muslim community. The description of their interactions-with kindness toward fellow believers and firmness against adversaries-provides a comprehensive model for conduct that balances compassion and strength.

Sayyid Qutb further elaborates on the plant metaphor, likening the companions’ qualities to the fruits of a well-nurtured tree. Just as a healthy tree provides shade, sustenance, and beauty, the companions’ virtues and actions benefited their community and set a standard for future generations. This vivid depiction underscores the transformative power of faith and righteous leadership, inviting believers to emulate their exemplary qualities.

Figure 1: Interpretation of Verse 29 of Surah Al-Fath Describing the Comparison of Prophet Muhammad PBUH and His Companions to Plants by Al-Sa’adiy

Depiction of Plants with the Word of Tawhid 

In Surah Ibrahim (14:24-26), the Quran draws a compelling comparison between the word of Tawhid** (كَلِمَةٌ طَيِّبَةٌ) and a good tree (شَجَرَةٌ طَيِّبَةٌ). The good tree, often interpreted as a date palm, embodies the essence of Tawhid-rooted in firm belief, branching out through righteous actions, and yielding abundant spiritual fruits.

The tree’s roots, representing foundational faith, anchor it securely, while its branches, reaching toward the sky, symbolize aspirations toward divine acceptance. Every part of the tree-roots, trunk, leaves, and fruit-is beneficial, mirroring how Tawhid enriches every aspect of a believer’s life.

Conversely, the bad word (كَلِمَةٌ خَبِيثَةٌ), symbolizing disbelief and shirk, is likened to a barren and harmful tree. This tree lacks stability, nourishment, and productivity, much like how disbelief fails to sustain a meaningful spiritual life. The metaphor emphasizes the Quranic principle that faith must be deeply rooted and consistently nurtured to bear lasting benefits.

Depiction of Worldly Life as Plants 

The fleeting nature of worldly life is poignantly illustrated through plant imagery in Surah Yunus (10:24), Surah Al-Kahf (18:45), and Surah Al-Hadid (57:20). These verses draw parallels between the human lifecycle and the growth of vegetation, emphasizing the temporary nature of both.

Rain, often symbolizing divine sustenance, brings forth lush greenery that thrives briefly before withering away. This metaphor mirrors human existence—vibrant and full of potential but ultimately transient. Ibn Kathir elaborates that the rapid decay of plants after flourishing serves as a reminder of life’s impermanence and the need to prepare for the hereafter.

The depiction also critiques the allure of material success, likening worldly pleasures to the beauty of blooming plants. While captivating, such attractions are fleeting and ultimately unsubstantial, urging believers to prioritize eternal rewards over temporary gains. This imagery resonates with readers by grounding profound spiritual truths in observable natural processes, making the message both relatable and memorable.

Depiction of Spending Wealth Through the Metaphor of Plants 

The Quran employs plant imagery to describe the outcomes of wealth expenditure, particularly in Surah Al-Baqarah (2:261) and Surah Al-Imran (3:117).

1. Sincere Charity: Sincere spending in Allah’s path is likened to a seed that grows into seven ears, each bearing a hundred grains. This metaphor reflects the exponential rewards of selfless charity, illustrating how even small acts can yield immense spiritual and societal benefits.
2. Insincere Charity: Conversely, insincere charitable acts are compared to crops destroyed by harsh winds, highlighting their futility. Such actions, motivated by worldly recognition rather than pure intentions, fail to bring lasting rewards.

This dual imagery underscores the importance of sincerity and purity in charitable acts, offering believers a vivid framework to evaluate their intentions and actions. By tying abstract spiritual principles to the familiar process of planting and harvesting, the Quran conveys its teachings in a manner that is both engaging and impactful.

The Quran’s use of plant imagery within the al-Mathal style showcases its rhetorical brilliance in conveying complex spiritual and moral lessons. By grounding abstract concepts in tangible and relatable elements, the Quran invites believers to reflect deeply on their faith, actions, and priorities. Each metaphor, whether illustrating divine light, faith, or the fleeting nature of life, serves to guide believers toward a life of sincerity, devotion, and preparation for the hereafter. This descriptive analysis highlights the Quran’s timeless ability to resonate with human experiences, reinforcing its role as a source of guidance and inspiration.

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

The Quran’s use of plant metaphors, as demonstrated through this study, highlights their profound role in communicating spiritual, moral, and ethical lessons. These metaphors serve as an effective bridge between abstract divine messages and tangible, relatable experiences, making them invaluable tools for Da’wah. By drawing connections between universal imagery and spiritual truths, the Quran ensures its teachings resonate across generations and cultural contexts.

Building on this understanding, a practical framework is proposed to translate these insights into actionable strategies for educational, sermonic, and community applications. This framework leverages the accessibility and relatability of plant metaphors to engage diverse audiences effectively.

Framework for Utilizing Plant Metaphors

Educational Curricula:

• 1. Thematic Lessons: Incorporate Quranic plant metaphors into lessons on spirituality and ethics, such as the olive tree in Surah An-Nur (24:35) symbolizing divine guidance.
  2. Interactive Projects: Encourage activities like gardening projects to connect the nurturing of plants with the nurturing of faith and values.
  3. Creative Engagement: Utilize writing exercises or multimedia projects to inspire personal reflections on Quranic themes.

Sermons:

• 1. Relatable Imagery: Use familiar plant metaphors, such as the seed and harvest in Surah Al-Baqarah (2:261), to explain the principles of sincere charity and its exponential rewards.
  2. Storytelling: Employ the vivid narrative quality of plant metaphors to captivate and inspire audiences, emphasizing their moral and spiritual dimensions.

Community Engagement Activities:

• 1. Environmental Initiatives: Organize tree-planting drives that highlight the spiritual and ethical lessons embedded in Quranic metaphors.
  2. Charity Drives: Use the imagery of seeds and harvests to inspire acts of charity, linking the metaphors to community enrichment efforts.
  3. Workshops and Seminars: Host sessions that explore the Quran’s use of plant metaphors, fostering reflection and dialogue.

Visualizing the Framework

To enhance understanding and implementation, the following visual aids can be used:

Flowchart: Implementation Pathway

Step 1: Identify Quranic plant metaphors relevant to the audience.

Step 2: Develop tailored educational, sermonic, and community initiatives.

Step 3: Engage participants through activities like interactive lessons, tree-planting, and creative projects.

Step 4: Evaluate the effectiveness and gather feedback.

Table 1: Thematic Map-Relationships Between Themes and Metaphors

Table 2: Summary Table-Practical Applications

Broader Implications

The insights derived from Quranic plant metaphors extend beyond their immediate applications in Da’wah. These metaphors can inform several broader areas of human thought and practice:

Global Environmental Ethics:

• 1. The Quran’s emphasis on the interconnectedness of creation, illustrated through plant imagery, underscores humanity’s responsibility to care for the environment. For instance, the olive tree’s symbolism of longevity and productivity (Surah An-Nur 24:35) encourages sustainable practices and reverence for natural resources.
  2. Quranic teachings can inspire ecological theology, integrating spirituality with environmental stewardship to promote a global ethos of care for the Earth.

Interfaith Dialogue:

• 1. Plant metaphors, such as the “Tree of Life” in the Quran and similar motifs in other religious traditions, provide common ground for interfaith discussions. These shared symbols can foster mutual understanding and collaboration on moral and ethical issues, including environmental conservation and social justice.

Moral Education:

• 1. The relatable imagery of seeds, growth, and harvests offers a powerful framework for teaching values such as patience, perseverance, and generosity. These metaphors can be integrated into curricula to enhance character development and ethical decision-making in diverse educational settings.

This broader applicability highlights the Quran’s timeless relevance in addressing global challenges and enriching human understanding. By exploring these implications, future research can expand the impact of Quranic teachings on universal ethical and moral discourse.

Acknowledging Limitations

While this study provides valuable insights into the use of plant metaphors in Quranic discourse, it is primarily reliant on qualitative data, which limits the scope of empirical evaluation. The interpretive nature of the analysis may introduce subjectivity, particularly in categorizing themes and applications. Additionally, the cultural specificity of some metaphors may affect their universality when applied across diverse contexts.

Future research could address these limitations by:

1. Conducting cross-cultural studies to explore how Quranic metaphors are perceived and interpreted in different cultural and religious settings.
2. Employing empirical methods, such as surveys or experiments, to evaluate the effectiveness of plant metaphors in achieving educational or sermonic goals.
3. Expanding the analysis to include a comparative study of metaphors in other religious or philosophical texts to highlight shared values and unique contributions.

By addressing these areas, future studies can enhance the understanding of Quranic metaphors and their practical applications, ensuring their relevance and impact in a global context.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We extend our heartfelt gratitude to the Penang Islamic Religious Council for their support through the National Research Grant titled “The Development Module for Fuqaha and Takmir Teachers in Penang – Al-Hikmah Module, Research Code 2022-0021-107-10.

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FOOTNOTES

1. Young dates that are nearly ripe are called “al-Yabis” (الْيَابِسُ) when they are fully ripe and dry. See “Lisan al-‘Arab” by Ibn Manzur (1995:1:405, 478, 2:352, 4:400, 5:237, 8:185, 15:344).
2. “Al-Tuhlabat” (اَلْطُّحْلَبَةُ) refers to a family of moss and seaweed; “al-Kasyuth” (اَلْكَشُوْثُ) is a type of parasitic plant, scientifically known as Cuscuta europaea; “al-Kam’at” (اَلْكمْأَةُ) is a type of desert mushroom (desert truffle), scientifically known as Terfeziaceae; “al-Karath” (اَلْكَرَاْثُ) is a species of leek, scientifically known as Allium ampeloprasum; “al-‘Asyaqat” (اَلْعَشَقَةُ) refers to a species of herb from the Hedera group. See “Tafsir al-Tabariy” (2001:13:652).
3. The “al-Hanzalat” (الْحَنْظَلَةُ) plant is a creeper that grows on the ground like a watermelon plant. Its leaves and stems are thorny and can cause skin irritation. It has a foul smell, and its leaves and roots are smaller than those of a watermelon plant. The fruit is extremely bitter. See “al-Tazkirat” by Dawwud al-Antakiy (1951:1:132).