Factors Affecting Job Burnout among Teachers in China: A Comprehensive Review

Factors Affecting Job Burnout among Teachers in China: A Comprehensive Review

Wang Xiaoci^1,2, *Muhammad Asyraf bin Mohd Kassim¹, Mohd Fitri bin Mansor¹

¹Faculty of Business & Communication, Universiti Malaysia Perlis

²Qing Gong College, North China University of Science and Technology

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90300055

Received: 24 February 2025; Accepted: 28 February 2025; Published: 28 March 2025

ABSTRACT

The antecedents and outcomes of teacher burnout have increasingly attracted the attention of both Chinese and international researchers in recent years. In the Chinese education system, burnout becomes a serious issue for a large workgroup of 18.9 million teachers. However, there has been no comprehensive review to synthesize the literature in this area, limiting our understanding on how burnout is experienced in this specific cultural context. This study adopts the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model as its theoretical framework and conducts a systematic literature review of 75 studies published since 2021 on teacher burnout in China. We review on the job demands, job resources, and personal resources as the antecedents of burnout, and also on the outcomes of burnout. Our review indicates that teachers in China experience unique job demands because of specific cultural context. Moreover, we summarize how motivation contribute to the mechanism of burnout development among Chinese teachers. Third, drawing from the recent extension of the JD-R model, we suggest future avenues for teacher burnout research in China, including examining job demands, job resources, and personal resources under specific cultural context and education types, further investigating the role of motivation in the JD-R model, and conducting more intervention studies to mitigate teacher burnout.

Keywords: Teacher burnout; JD-R model; Antecedents; Outcomes; Motivation; China

INTRODUCTION

Among high-pressure professions, education stands out as particularly vulnerable due to its unique combination of emotional, cognitive, and physical demands (Garcia-Arroyo et al., 2019; Ji & Yue, 2020; D. Liu & Du, 2024). The burnout experience of teachers has received international research attention because multifaceted demands create a high-pressure environment, making teachers more susceptible to burnout compared to professionals in many other fields (Fathi et al., 2021; Ouellette et al., 2018). Teacher burnout significantly undermines teachers’ well-being, manifesting in reduced self-rated health, poor mental health, and diminished job satisfaction (Aldrup et al., 2018; Bianchi et al., 2018; Herman et al., 2018; Robinson et al., 2019; Salmela-Aro et al., 2019).

Given its close link to employee job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover rates, and job performance (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017), burnout becomes a critical concern for researchers and practitioners in organizational management. Many methods to prevent or lessen teacher burnout have been proposed. These include giving teachers with more resources and aid, reducing their burden, increasing their pay, and facilitating professional growth (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Stankevičiūtė & Savanevičienė, 2021). Defined by Freudenberger (1974) as a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion due to prolonged workplace stressors, burnout is characterized by emotional exhaustion (EE), depersonalization (DP), and reduced personal accomplishment (PA) (Maslach, 2018).

The escalating concern over teacher burnout has spurred growing attention toward understanding its causes and consequences (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2020). According to the job demands and resources (JD-R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017; Demerouti et al., 2001), Past and contemporary research on teacher burnout has made significant strides, utilizing well-established theoretical models such as the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) framework and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to identify causes, consequences, and potential interventions (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017; Geng et al., 2024; Lesener et al., 2019; McAnally & Hagger, 2024; L. Xu, 2019). These studies highlight that burnout is typically driven by an imbalance between high job demands and limited resources, further exacerbated by insufficient personal and organizational support. Notably, apart from demands and resources, recent literature explores the role of motivation in burnout process, and attempts to integrate it into the JD-R model to increase its predictive power (Roohani & Dayeri, 2019; Sato et al., 2022a).

Although literature have shown that teachers across the globe share some common factors in their burnout development, recent research argues that different educational and cultural conditions cultivate distinct work and personal characteristics and contribute to varied burnout experiences. Teachers in China is one of the largest teacher groups in the world, with a teaching workforce of approximately 18.9 million (Ministry of Education of People’s Republic of China, 2023), and this group is facing extremely high level of burnout. García-Arroyo (2019) comparative study revealed that Chinese teachers reported the second-highest scores on emotional exhaustion among educators in 35 countries, underscoring the intense psychological strain within the profession. Cheng et al. (2023) explicitly identified teaching as one of the most burnout-prone occupations in China, raising significant concerns about the sustainability of the educational workforce. The Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (2023) has released a groundbreaking report on national mental health development (2021-2022), which revealed a particularly vulnerable demographic: professionals, with teachers standing out as a critical group of concern (Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2023). The global comparison conducted by Persson (2017) underscores that Chinese university teachers experience the highest levels of stress among their global counterparts, with stress levels peaking at 5 on a scale where most countries fall below 3. The situation is particularly dire in higher vocational colleges, which constitute a significant segment of China’s higher education system. As shown by the recent research results, higher vocational educators report that the degree of burnout is higher than that of University Teachers (Yaqian et al., 2024). However, the burnout of this group has not been systematically concerned and solved.

China’s cultural context, social and educational conditions add specific demands to this group and contribute to shape a unique burnout profile of Chinese teachers. Confucian beliefs, the traditional Chinese education philosophy, expects teachers to be not only knowledge providers, but also role models, authority figures, or even parents to the students (H. Cheng et al., 2023). Such a high and sometimes unrealistic expectation makes teachers vulnerable to burnout (Luk et al., 2010). In recent years, China’s education reforms have focused on enhancing educational quality and equity, placing higher demands on teachers’ professional competencies and intensified pressures related to teaching evaluations and career development. Given the profound impact of teacher burnout and the distinct characteristics of burnout among Chinese teachers, conducting a comprehensive integrative review is imperative. Such a review would facilitate the development of a holistic framework for understanding teacher burnout in China while offering valuable insights for international research, particularly in countries with comparable educational contexts.

Objectives

This review synthesizes findings from recent literature to:

1. Provide a comprehensive understanding of antecedences and outcomes of burnout in the Chinese higher educational teacher group through the lens of the job demands and resources (JD-R) model (Demerouti et al., 2001). Specifically, we focus on teachers’ job demands, job resources, personal resources, and outcomes of burnout under the Chinese context.
2. Review on the role of teacher motivation, one of the individual cognitive and behavioral strategies, in explaining the burnout process among Chinese teachers. We summarize how teacher motivation contributes to the mechanism of burnout development.
3. Drawing from the recent extension of the JD-R model, we suggest future avenues for teacher burnout research in China.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Teacher Burnout

Burnout has been defined as a three-dimensional construct in the predominant research literature (H. Cheng et al., 2023). Initially, it is characterized as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment among workers working in the human service and interreacting extensively with people (teachers, nurses, etc.) (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Later, burnout was expanded beyond the human service professions, with its three dimensions relabeled in broader terms: exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced professional efficacy (Maslach et al., 2001). Exhaustion refers to feelings of being over extended and depleted of one’ s emotional and physical resources. The cynicism (or depersonalization) has been described as a detached response to one’ s work and a cynical attitude toward other people at work. Finally, reduced professional efficacy refers to a decline in one’ s feelings of competence and effectiveness in work (Maslach & Leiter, 2008). This definition has been widely accepted in the burnout literature, and is commonly cited in recent research works (Bianchi et al., 2019; Demerouti, 2015; Maslach, 2017).

Researchers began exploring the presence and impact of burnout in education, counseling, law enforcement, finance, information technology, and various other industries (Maslach & Leiter, 2008). Studies have shown that individuals facing prolonged high-pressure work, both in direct interpersonal interactions and in roles with indirect relationships to their work objects, are susceptible to experiencing burnout symptoms. Burnout among teachers and educators has been extensively studied. Research has explored the relationship between burnout and factors such as workload, classroom environment, job satisfaction, and student outcomes (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2017). In the context of this study, teacher burnout can be defined as a phenomenon or state that teachers experience high levels of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment, and then exhibit significant symptoms of burnout (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). This definition and model have become crucial for studying and diagnosing teacher burnout and have been widely accepted and referenced.

The existing research studies have contributed significantly to the understanding of burnout and its underlying factors. These studies highlight the multidimensional nature of burnout and its complex interaction with individual, organizational, and contextual factors. In summary, burnout research originated with Freudenberger’s work, initially focusing on social work and humanitarian fields. Subsequently, research expanded to other professional domains, personal life, family domains, and the field of organizational management. Burnout research encompasses the conceptualization, dimensions, influencing factors, and preventive and intervention approaches. These investigations are essential for understanding and addressing burnout issues and improving work and life quality (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017; Demerouti et al., 2001).

The JD-R model

The Job Demand-Resource Model (JD-R) focuses on employees’ emotional experiences in the workplace. Taking the job itself as the logical starting point, it examines the interaction process between employees and their work. JD-R originated in the fields of occupational health, work stress, and job burnout research. It was developed based on the Job Demand-Control model and the Effort-Reward Imbalance model. Demerouti et al. (2001) enriched job-related factors and proposed the JD-R model. This theory posits that every occupation contains unique stress-related factors, which can be categorized into two dimensions: job demands and job resources.

Job demands refer to physical, psychological, social, and organizational aspects of a job that require sustained physical and mental effort or costs. While job demands are not necessarily negative, when they are excessively high, they can lead to negative emotions such as disappointment, anxiety, and burnout. Job resources, on the other hand, are those aspects that help reduce the physical and psychological costs associated with job demands, achieve work goals, and promote individual learning, development, and growth. According to the JD-R model, job demands induce emotional exhaustion, whereas a lack of job resources leads directly to disengagement. These two negative emotional experiences can, in turn, weaken positive outcome variables such as job performance and job satisfaction.

With the rise of positive psychology, employees’ positive emotions and psychological experiences at work have become a focal point. Schaufeli & Bakker (2004a) refined the model proposed by Demerouti et al., introducing the concept of engagement—which reflects the degree of alignment between employees’ selves and their work roles—into the JD-R model (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004b). This inclusion highlighted the positive impact of job resources on engagement (work involvement).

A multitude of empirical findings indicate that human behavior is determined not only by situational factors but also by personal factors, resulting from the interaction between individuals and their environment. Consequently, an increasing number of researchers advocate for the integration of personal resources into the JD-R model to enhance its explanatory power. Given that personal resources are a higher-order concept, they are often operationalized as different variables in existing empirical studies. Researchers employ various methodologies (cross-sectional, longitudinal, diary studies) and examine diverse populations (teachers, nurses, firefighters, students, etc.) from multiple perspectives (main effects, mediation effects, moderation effects) to investigate the mechanisms through which personal resources exert their influence, yielding substantial findings.

From the continuously refined JD-R research framework, this study examines the impact of both work-related factors and personal factors on burnout. Therefore, the JD-R model is used as the underpinning theory for this research. We synthesize our findings on teacher burnout in China according to the JD-R model. Specifically, we focus on teachers’ job demands, job resources, personal resources, and outcomes of burnout under the Chinese context. Additionally, it examines the role of personal factors, specifically teacher motivation, as a mediating variable in the relationship between these influencing factors and teacher burnout.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

Teacher motivation plays a crucial role in influencing burnout levels among educators. High motivation, particularly intrinsic motivation, is often associated with reduced burnout, as it enhances teachers’ sense of purpose, satisfaction, and resilience when facing challenges (Abós et al., 2018; Alexander et al., 2020). Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000b) is arguably the most frequently used theoretical framework in motivation research including teacher motivation (Richardson & Watt, 2018; Urdan, 2014). The theory provides a broad framework for understanding how people are intrinsically and extrinsically motivated, or not motivated, to take an action (Sato et al., 2022b).

Extensive research in developed countries has consistently highlighted the importance of teacher motivation in mitigating burnout. Studies have demonstrated that intrinsic motivation, supported by favorable work environments, protects against burnout (Abós et al., 2018; Alexander et al., 2020; Aliazas et al., 2023; Caruso, 2019). These findings underscore the critical role of motivation in reducing stress and improving job satisfaction. However, most of this research focuses on specific groups of teachers, such as English teachers or those in primary and secondary schools, leaving a significant gap in understanding motivation and burnout among higher vocational educators, particularly in China.

Moreover, emerging research has begun exploring teacher motivation as a mediating factor in burnout. For instance, studies have shown that motivation can mediate the relationship between job demands, job resources, and burnout, highlighting its potential to buffer against stress and enhance resilience (Chambel et al., 2015; Rubino et al., 2009; Zewude & Hercz, 2022). Despite these advancements, there remains a paucity of research integrating motivation as a mediator in the context of Chinese education.

As conceptualized within the SDT framework, motivation provides a nuanced perspective on the interplay between job demands, resources, and individual outcomes. Broadening this research to include Chinese teachers could illuminate new pathways for intervention, addressing the unique challenges faced by this critical segment of the teaching workforce. SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000b) has two strengths in explaining people’ s motivation. First, the theory categorizes motivation into three broad types: amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation. Further, SDT argues that people’s motivation is a developmental process across time and place. Furthermore, SDT emphasizes that three basic psychological needs—a need for competence, a need for autonomy and a need for relatedness—are the nutriments of motivation (Deci, 1991). Thus, as SDT not only concerns the type of motivation, but also the circumstances that promote and maintain motivation, it would be an appropriate framework for examining lecturers’ motivation.

Ryan and Deci proposed two primary types of motivation: autonomous motivation and controlled motivation. Autonomous motivation encompasses motivations that involve a sense of volition, willingness, and choice when engaging in activities. It includes intrinsic motivation as well as the integrated and identified forms of extrinsic motivation. Controlled motivation involves engaging in activities due to external pressures or obligations, or internal psychological compulsion. This category includes external regulation and introjected regulation. These distinctions help elucidate how different motivations influence behavior and the degree of self-determination experienced by individuals. The self-determination theory, from an organic perspective, assumes that every individual has an innate, intrinsic, and constructive consciousness of perfecting and integrating themselves, and a tendency to become a whole with others or the surrounding society. However, this innate tendency does not automatically take effect, but requires sustained support from the social environment to effectively function.

METHODOLOGY OF THE REVIEW

This review employs a systematic and rigorous methodology to synthesize existing literature on teacher burnout in the Chinese context. The approach integrates comprehensive database searches, strict inclusion criteria, and thematic categorization to ensure depth and reliability in findings.

Search Strategy

The literature search was conducted across three major academic databases: Web of Science, Google Scholar and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Boolean operators and specific keywords, such as “teacher,” “(professional) burnout,” “job Stress,” “Chinese teacher, ” “university or college,” “vocational teacher,” and “China,” were utilized to maximize relevant article retrieval. The search targeted peer-reviewed journal articles published from 2021 onward to focus on recent and relevant findings. Additional sources were identified through manual searches of references cited in key articles.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The inclusion criteria encompassed studies that:

1. Focus on empirical or comprehensive theoretical research on the correlates of Chinese teacher burnout.
2. Explore personal, work-related, or scenario related factors influencing teacher burnout.

III. The research subjects were full-time teachers in primary, secondary school, and/or vocational/college/university settings.

1. The studies were reported in English or Chinese language.

Studies were excluded if they:

1. Concentrated exclusively on burnout in non-teaching staff such as principles, and in early education or special education.
2. Lacked empirical rigor or theoretical relevance.

III. Were inaccessible or published in languages other than English.

Screening and Categorization

The initial database search yielded 6100 articles. After screening titles and abstracts for relevance, 236 articles underwent full-text review, resulting in a final selection of 75 articles. A breakdown of the articles sourced from each database is provided in Table 1 below. These were categorized into three thematic areas: reviews of teacher burnout, the antecedents and consequences of teacher burnout, as shown in Table 2. Among them, the research on the influencing factors of teacher burnout is the most extensive, reaching 71 articles.

Table 1 Articles Sourced from Databases

From the perspective of the research subjects of these articles, 31 samples on primary and/or secondary level teacher burnout, 17 on Chinese EFL teacher burnout, 18 on college and university level teacher burnout, 3 on vocational teacher burnout, and 5 pieces on teacher burnout in an unspecified level (see details in Figure 0).

Generally, the reviewed empirical studies used cross-sectional designs and self-report questionnaires. It is notable that except for 5 longitudinal studies, the other 70 articles applied one-shot designs, which did not allow inference of a causal relationship. Sample sizes varied across the 75 studies from N = 122 to N = 7,979. With 14 exceptions of large sample size (N > 1,000), all studies employed small and/or convenient samples (see details in Table 3).

Table 2 Thematic areas of Articles

Figure 1 Statistical analysis of research subjects’ data at different levels or types of 75 articles

Table 3 A review of teacher burnout research in China from 2021 onward (Empirical research N = 75)

Note: EFL=English as a Foreign Language; EE = emotional exhaustion; DP = depersonalization; PA = reduced personal accomplishment

RESULTS

Previous studies highlight the multidimensional nature of burnout and its complex interaction with individual, organizational, and contextual factors. Next, we will review the antecedents and outcomes of teacher burnout, and focus on the variables such as motivation combined with the corresponding situation.

Antecedents of teacher burnout in China

Building on the JD-R model, we organize the antecedents of teacher burnout in China into three main categories: job demands, job resources, and personal resources. We discuss the varied predicting effects of those variables on teacher burnout.

Job demands

Based on an analysis of 75 articles, 31 studies have investigated the relationship of job demands and burnout, with 10 main job demands being identified and examined (see a full list in Table 4). Instead of discussing all the stressors that related to Chinese teacher burnout, we will focus on role stress which should be understood within the Chinese context and constitute a unique burnout profile of Chinese teachers.

Role stress is a particularly significant demand for teachers in China. The unique occupational challenges faced by Chinese teachers demand greater academic attention. Chinese teachers, especially higher vocational educators in China often juggle multifaceted roles involving teaching, research, administrative duties, and industry collaboration (C. Chen & Wang, 2020; Lei et al., 2021). The increasing demands of these roles and frequent policy and organizational changes exacerbate stress levels and the potential for burnout.

In order to understand and address the issues of burnout, it is essential to discover the critical predictors and gaps that contribute to this issue. One of the critical gaps in current literature is the limited exploration of role stress, a composite construct encompassing role ambiguity, conflict, and overload. While past studies have highlighted the significant impact of role stress on burnout (Azeem, 2013; Maor & Hemi, 2021; Richards et al., 2016; Washburn et al., 2021), Chinese research has yet to delve deeply into this area, especially within the context of higher vocational education. Existing studies predominantly focus on conflict among university teachers, overlooking the broader implications of role stress in the complex work environments of higher vocational institutions. Addressing this gap is crucial for developing effective interventions to mitigate burnout.

Job resources

Before 2020, Job resource examined in teacher burnout research in China is mostly limited to the social support that teachers can get, while other important resources (e.g. leadership, organizational Support, and management Cultures) have largely been ignored. Of the 75 articles reviewed, 21 studies have investigated the relationship of job resources and burnout, with more than 9 main job resources being identified and examined (see a full list in Table 5). This study will focus on discussing perceived organizational support.

Similarly, organizational factors such as perceived organizational support and person-organization fit are under-researched in the Chinese context. In collectivist cultures like China’ s, where relational networks and institutional support hold significant value, these factors may play pivotal roles in influencing teacher burnout. While some studies have identified a negative relationship between organizational support and burnout (Anomneze et al., 2016; Rizvi et al., 2023; Yew & Ramos, 2019), findings remain ambiguous. For instance, Baptista & Cardoso (2021) reported only a weak correlation between these variables, while others found significant negative effects on specific dimensions of burnout, such as emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. The ambiguous findings highlight the need for more robust empirical studies to clarify the role of organizational support in mitigating burnout among Chinese higher vocational teachers.

Table 4. Job stressors of teacher burnout in China.

Perceived organizational support refers to the extent to which employees subjectively perceive that the organization cares about, supports, and values them. This support can be manifested through the provision of resources, information, training, promotion opportunities, job flexibility, and other aspects (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Although there is a crisis of teachers feeling burned out and intending to leave the profession, organizational factors still make a difference. In particular, organizational support and satisfaction with school decisions were associated with greater personal satisfaction and reduced burnout (Trinidad, 2021). In a study on burnout among university teachers in Brazil, the results indicated symptoms of Burnout syndrome in teachers as well as greater predictive power of organizational support in the occurrence of the syndrome (Silva & Oliveira, 2019).

Research has found that compared with social factors and personal factors, organizational factors have the most influence on teacher burnout (Ji & Yue, 2020). Several interesting studies extends the previous studies by investigating the relationship of perceived organizational support towards teacher burnout such as Anomneze et al. (2016), Yew & Ramos (2019) and Rizvi et al. (2023). Anomneze et al. (2016) investigated the moderating role of perceived organizational support on emotional labor–burnout relation among 323 secondary school teachers in Enugu State, Nigeria. Results showed that POS significantly predicted emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, which are two of the three Structures of Burnout. One limitation of the study is the measurement of organizational support from only one dimension may have obscured the nuanced understanding of the impacts that different dimensions of organizational support would have had on burnout. Similarly, similar results have been validated in other studies. People report burnout in an environment where efforts are not appreciated, and workload is unjustly allocated, which creates burnout (Janssen, 2000). Teachers who enjoy organizational support tend to thrive at work, which distinctly manifests lesser chances of burnout than in the presence of organizational support (Doğru, 2018).

Table 5. Job resources of teacher burnout in China.

Personal resources

Another promising and increasingly focused area is the role of personal resources, mainly psychological capital, self-efficacy, psychological empowerment and professional identity, in combating burnout. Among all 75 sampled articles, 14 types of personal resources were discussed and examined, indicating a growing focus on personal resources (see a full list in Table 6).

Past research has consistently demonstrated the protective effects of psychological capital comprising self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience against burnout (Burhanuddin et al., 2019; Cai, 2015; D. Liu & Du, 2024). Investigating the role of psychological capital could provide valuable insights into personal strategies for enhancing teacher resilience and reducing burnout. According to the Conservation of Resources Theory (Hobfoll, 1989, 2001), psychological capital can be used as an individual resource to help individuals regulate their job stress, thus alleviating their job burnout. Studies in the area of teacher burnout have been conclusive about the negative relationship between psychological capital and burnout (M. Demir & Demir, 2019; Ferradás et al., 2019; Y. Zhang et al., 2019), which suggests that psychological capital would be an effective personal resource for the reduction of these psychopathological states in teachers.

Some other studies have indicated that psychological capital may constitute a negative predictor of teacher burnout, acting as a mediator of variables, such as subjective wellbeing (Hansen et al., 2015), or emotional expression (Cheung et al., 2011). Similarly, other studies have concluded that the negative relationship between psychological capital and burnout would contribute to improved teacher performance and increased job satisfaction (S. Demir, 2018). In short, existing research suggests that psychological capital equips teachers with effective resources that are negatively related to the symptomatology associated with burnout (i.e., emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, reduced personal accomplishment).

Some research on the impact of psychological capital on teacher burnout is being conducted in China, such as Y. Zhang et al. (2019), X. Zhao et al. (2022), D. Liu & Du (2024), and Xue et al. (2023). These studies have proven that there is a significant negative correlation between psychological capital and teacher burnout, that is, the higher the psychological capital, the lower the teacher burnout.

Table 6. Personal resources of teacher burnout in China.

Teacher Motivation

Work motivation refers to a series of internal and external forces within an individual that initiate work-related behaviors and determine their form, direction, intensity, and duration (Pinder, 2014).  Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000a) is arguably the most frequently used theoretical framework in motivation research including teacher motivation (Richardson & Watt, 2018; Urdan, 2014).

Ryan and Deci (2000), the founder of SDT, differentiates several types of motivation based on various goals or reasons that give rise to an act. Fernet et al. (2008), also based on SDT, define three broadly known motivations from low to high: amotivation, extrinsic motivation, and intrinsic motivation and psychometrically assess. Self-determined kinds of motivation have positive and negative consequences or outcomes. For example, intrinsic motivation and identified regulation result in positive effects, whereas external regulation, introjected regulation, and amotivation lead to negative results (Fernet et al., 2008). Additionally, intrinsic motivation enables individuals to develop internal psychological growth, integrate the personality, allow integration of psychological stability, and foster positive life processes (Ryan & Deci, 2000a), and the most positive determinants of a personal and higher level of well-being (Ryan et al., 2008).

Teacher motivation refers to reasons that emanating from individuals’ intrinsic values to choose to teach and sustaining teaching, and the intensity of teacher motivation which is indicated by effort expended on teaching as influenced by a number of contextual factors. Early research on teacher motivation had common interests in initial teachers’ motivation to choose teaching as a career. Only in recent years, research in in-service teachers’ motivation to remain teaching has developed (Han & Yin, 2016). Sato et al. (2022b) examined the relationships between teacher motivation (TM) and perceived burnout of English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) teachers in Chile. The participants were 154 school-level teachers with a range of backgrounds (teaching experience, geographic areas, and school sectors). Structural equation modeling showed that TM negatively predicted perceived burnout, suggesting that it can counter teachers’ emotional exhaustion and their perceived lack of personal accomplishment.

Several teacher motivation studies were conducted in China. For example, M. Song (2022a) analyzed the relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy, motivation, and occupational burnout. The study found that both self-efficacy and motivation of teachers are predictive factors for teacher burnout. (M. Song, 2022b). Liu Jiahong et al. (2023) used a stratified random sampling method to select 378 teachers from 6 primary and secondary schools in Henan Province as the research subjects. The research examined the relationships between teacher’s motivation to teach, (including two dimensions: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation), teacher’s social emotional ability and teacher’s sense of occupational burnout. This study found that the intrinsic motivation of teachers has a negative impact on their sense of occupational burnout, while the extrinsic motivation has a positive impact on their sense of occupational burnout. This study only examines the impact of teacher motivation on teacher burnout from the perspective of teaching motivation, and cannot extend to the perspective of the process of maintaining teacher career development (Liu Jiahong et al., 2023). T. Zhang (2021) provided a theoretical perspective that physical education teacher motivation is contextually constructed in close relation with their job demands and recourses. This study suggested that the teacher motivation is multidimensional and should not be simplified to a single reason or factor. Different teachers may be driven by different motivations, which can influence each other and collectively affect their professional behavior and attitudes. The author emphasized the interactive effects of situational factors (such as school environment, student reactions, administrative support, administrative overload etc.) and personal factors (such as teacher self-efficacy, resilience, values, professional identity, etc.) on teacher motivation.

Although many studies have been conducted in the past to examine the relationship between influencing factors and teacher motivation in China, the problem is that the extent to which these findings can be generalized to non-western work contexts is still under-explored. Most of the influencing factors and teacher motivation research have been conducted in the primary and secondary school teachers. Further research to investigate the relationship between influencing factors and teacher motivation should be conducted, particularly among higher education teachers, as they make up the largest group of teachers in China. Furthermore, there is still a lack of evidence regarding the motivational factors in China. Therefore, further research on studying the integration of factors influencing burnout at both individual and organizational levels in a single framework is essential and to understand the effects on teacher motivation.

Outcomes of teacher burnout in China

Studies concerning the outcomes associated with teacher burnout in China are relatively less than those on antecedents. Of the 75 articles reviewed, only 10 studies have investigated the outcomes of teacher burnout in China, involving turnover intention (R. Li et al., 2021; F. Liu et al., 2021; Pei et al., 2024; Yu et al., 2023; Q. Zhang et al., 2022; S. Zhao et al., 2024), teacher well-being (Wei & Ye, 2022), job Satisfaction (W. Chen et al., 2022; Su & Jiang, 2023), mental health (T. Liu & Wang, 2024), and depressive symptoms (Zhong et al., 2025), etc.

Directions for future research

JD-R model under specific cultural context

One of the unique aspects examined in this review is the culturally specific job demands under the Chinese context. Through our review, we can see that most of the researches on teacher burnout in China’s educational context focus on primary and secondary school teachers and EFL teachers, and pay little attention to higher vocational teachers.

The development of vocational education in China has put forward new requirements for the construction of high-quality teacher teams. Vocational education combines the dual characteristics of higher education and vocational education. Based on the above new requirements, China’s positioning of the standards for vocational teachers is “dual teacher quality + three abilities + five roles”. The‘dual teacher quality’refers to the fact that teachers should possess both the professional technical ability as technical personnel and the educational and teaching ability as teachers; The three abilities include the ability to integrate theory and practice in teaching, the ability to apply scientific research, and the ability to integrate industry and education with social services (L. Zhang et al., 2024). The five roles played by vocational college teachers are “implementers of professional teaching”, “caregivers of student life”, “leaders of professional practice”, “developers of educational resources”, and “leaders of self-development” (Z. Zhou et al., 2023). Role stress in the context of China’s education system constitutes a critical issue that warrants significant academic attention.

The pressure of teachers’ job roles and problems in the education system, especially at the organizational level, pose significant professional development challenges for vocational college teachers and trigger some personal issues. The 2023 National Survey Report on the Current Situation of Vocational Education Teachers (EDUCATOR, 2023) points out that full-time teachers in vocational colleges experience negative phenomena such as high occupational burnout, high emotional load, low efficacy, and low sense of autonomy due to objective factors such as high work pressure, limited learning opportunities, and excessive workload. Future research is needed to investigate the impact of factors related to individual and organizational environments, as well as the interaction between individuals and organizational environments, on burnout among Chinese higher vocational teachers.

The role of motivation in the JD-R model

Building on our review, we highlight motivation and behavioral strategy that can potentially be integrated into the JD-R model in burnout research of Chinese teachers. Our review shows that different motivation relate to job demands, job/personal resources, and burnout distinctively, leading to unique pathways toward burnout. However, we list motivation worth further researching instead of providing detailed pathway, because research in this field is still limited and generates inconclusive findings.

This study goes a step further by integrating two theories: Job Demand-Resources (JD-R) and Self Determination Theory (SDT), which can provide a more comprehensive perspective that helps us understand and address burnout. The JD-R model focuses on the needs and resources in the work environment, while the SDT theory emphasizes the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. Combining these two theories, this study could provide an extensive understanding of how the work environment affects basic psychological needs and leads to burnout. Research along this line is needed to test and clarify how teacher motivation can be integrated into the JD-R model. It is very important for the system to understand the factors that influence teacher burnout.

Thorough methodological procedure and effective intervention program

From our detailed examination of 75 articles, we can find that most of the studies are cross-sectional studies. In the field of research on teacher burnout in China, the existing literature predominantly employs cross-sectional study designs. While such approaches can reveal associations between different variables, they are limited in capturing the dynamic developmental process of teacher burnout and its causal mechanisms. Therefore, future studies should adopt longitudinal research designs to provide a more comprehensive examination of the trajectory of teacher burnout and its influencing factors.

CONCLUSION

This study provides a comprehensive review on teacher burnout research in the Chinese context under the JD-R framework. It makes some contributions to the literature of teacher burnout and burnout research. Firstly, we reviewed integrated antecedents of teacher burnout in China based on empirically validated factors and their relationships. Specifically, we systematically identify the job demands, job/personal resources, and outcomes of teacher burnout in the Chinese context. We find that some job demands contributing to Chinese teacher burnout are culturally specific while some key resources are not adequately examined in this context, which suggests that a more contextualized analysis of burnout is worthwhile. Secondly, we discuss how motivation contributes to the burnout process in the Chinese teacher group. Specifically, we review on the role motivations play in the relationships between job demands, job/personal resources, and burnout. Thirdly, this review highlights the gaps in our understanding of teacher burnout research in China. Firstly, future works might examine how organizational factors influence the development of burnout. Secondly, researchers should explore the role of different motivation in Chinese teacher burnout under the JD-R framework. Thirdly, we notice the scarcity of rigorous research design such as longitudinal and diary study in teacher burnout field, and point out the need of intervention studies as a valuable practical application.

REFERENCES

1. Abós, Á., Haerens, L., Sevil, J., Aelterman, N., & García-González, L. (2018). Teachers’ motivation in relation to their psychological functioning and interpersonal style: A variable-and person-centered approach. Teaching and Teacher Education, 74, 21–34.
2. Aldrup, K., Klusmann, U., Lüdtke, O., Göllner, R., & Trautwein, U. (2018). Student misbehavior and teacher well-being: Testing the mediating role of the teacher-student relationship. Learning and Instruction, 58, 126–136.
3. Alexander, C., Wyatt-Smith, C., & Du Plessis, A. (2020). The role of motivations and perceptions on the retention of Inservice teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 96, 103186.
4. Aliazas, J. V., Panoy, B. R., & Baguna, A. (2023). Person-Environment Fit: Empowering Leadership Practices on Teachers’ Work Engagement and Motivation. International Journal of Academe and Industry Research, 4(3).
5. An, S., & Tao, S. (2024). English as a foreign language teachers’ burnout: the predicator powers of self-efficacy and well-being. Acta Psychologica, 245, 104226.
6. Anomneze, E. A., Ugwu, D. I., Enwereuzor, I. K., & Ugwu, L. I. (2016). Teachers’ emotional labor and burnout: Does perceived organizational support matter. Asian Social Science, 12(2), 9–22.
7. Azeem, S. M. (2013). Influence of organizational role stress and personality hardiness on teachers’ burnout. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 3(7), 608.
8. Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2017). Job demands–resources theory: Taking stock and looking forward. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), 273.
9. Baptista, M. N., & Cardoso, H. F. (2021). Do Organizational Support and Occupational Stressors Influence Burnout in Teachers? Avaliaçao Psicologica: Interamerican Journal of Psychological Assessment, 20(4), 435–444.
10. Bianchi, R., Schonfeld, I. S., & Laurent, E. (2018). Burnout syndrome and depression. Understanding Depression: Volume 2. Clinical Manifestations, Diagnosis and Treatment, 187–202.
11. Bianchi, R., Schonfeld, I. S., & Laurent, E. (2019). Burnout: Moving beyond the status quo. International Journal of Stress Management, 26(1), 36.
12. Bing, H., Sadjadi, B., Afzali, M., & Fathi, J. (2022). Self-efficacy and emotion regulation as predictors of teacher burnout among English as a foreign language teachers: A structural equation modeling approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 900417.
13. Burhanuddin, N. A. N., Ahmad, N. A., Said, R. R., & Asimiran, S. (2019). A systematic review of the psychological capital (PsyCap) research development: Implementation and gaps. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 8(3), 133–150.
14. Cai, B. (2015). Research on the Relationship Between Personal and Organizational Matching, Psychological Capital and Job Burnout in Primary and Secondary School Teachers. Changsha: Hunan Normal University.
15. Cao, B., Hassan, N. C., & Omar, M. K. (2024). The Impact of Social Support on Burnout among Lecturers: A Systematic Literature Review. Behavioral Sciences, 14(8), 727.
16. Cao, J., Dai, T., Dong, H., Chen, J., & Fan, Y. (2024). Research on the mechanism of academic stress on occupational burnout in Chinese universities. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 12166.
17. Caruso, G. (2019). Facing EL teachers’ burnout through motivation. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 3(1), 1–14.
18. Chambel, M. J., Castanheira, F., Oliveira-Cruz, F., & Lopes, S. (2015). Work context support and Portuguese soldiers’ well-being: The mediating role of autonomous motivation. Military Psychology, 27(5), 297–310.
19. Chen, B., Chen, B., Ren, S., Li, B., Liu, H., & Jiang, G. (2024). Cracking the code of teacher burnout: the chain mediation of GPT integration degree through behavioral engagement and classroom atmosphere in a cross-level chain mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1495743.
20. Chen, C., & Wang, H. (2020). Research on the current situation and countermeasures of job burnout among university teachers. Higher Education Research, 5, 22–27.
21. Chen, F., Wang, X., & Gao, Y. (2024). EFL teachers’ burnout in technology enhanced instructions setting: The role of personality traits and psychological capital. ACTA PSYCHOLOGICA, 249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104461
22. Chen, J., Lin, C., & Lin, F. (2024). The interplay among EFL teachers’ emotional intelligence and self-efficacy and burnout. Acta Psychologica, 248, 104364.
23. Chen, M., Zhou, C., Wang, Y., & Li, Y. (2022). The role of school ICT construction and teacher information literacy in reducing teacher burnout: Based on SEM and fsQCA. Education and Information Technologies, 27(6), 8751–8770.
24. Chen, Q., & Li, Z. (2024). Exploring The Impact Of Workload Variation On Job Burnout Among Teachers In Higher Vocational Colleges: A Job Demand Resource Theory Perspective. Educational Administration: Theory and Practice, 30(5), 7678–7685.
25. Chen, S. (2023). Modeling the effect of loving pedagogy dispositions and teacher self-efficacy on teacher burnout. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1157324.
26. Chen, W. J. (2021). An Investigation of Job Burnout and Motivation Factors in China Higher Vocational College.
27. Chen, W., Zhou, S., Zheng, W., & Wu, S. (2022). Investigating the relationship between job burnout and job satisfaction among Chinese generalist teachers in rural primary schools: A serial mediation model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), 14427.
28. Chen, X.-M., Liao, X. L., Chen, I.-H., Gamble, J. H., Jiang, X.-Y., Li, X.-D., & Bo, C.-X. (2024). The long-term effects of perceived instructional leadership on teachers’ psychological well-being during COVID-19. Plos One, 19(8), e0305494.
29. Cheng, H., Fan, Y., & Lau, H. (2023). An integrative review on job burnout among teachers in China: Implications for Human Resource Management. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 34(3), 529–561.
30. Cheng, Y. (2022). Investigating factors responsible for teacher burnout in English as foreign language classes. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 876203.
31. Cheung, F., Tang, C. S., & Tang, S. (2011). Psychological capital as a moderator between emotional labor, burnout, and job satisfaction among school teachers in China. International Journal of Stress Management, 18(4), 348.
32. Deci, E. L. (1991). A motivational approach to self: Integration in personality. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 38.
33. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). The general causality orientations scale: Self-determination in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 19(2), 109–134.
34. Demerouti, E. (2015). Strategies used by individuals to prevent burnout. European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 45(10), 1106–1112.
35. Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499.
36. Demerouti, E., van Eeuwijk, E., Snelder, M., & Wild, U. (2011). Assessing the effects of a “personal effectiveness” training on psychological capital, assertiveness and self‐awareness using self‐other agreement. Career Development International, 16(1), 60–81.
37. Demir, M., & Demir, Ş. Ş. (2019). The effects of psychological capital on employees’ organizational identification in hotels. Journal of Tourism Theory and Research, 5(3), 355–369.
38. Demir, S. (2018). The relationship between psychological capital and stress, anxiety, burnout, job satisfaction, and job involvement. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 75, 137–153.
39. Ding, J., & He, L. (2022). On the association between Chinese EFL teachers’ academic buoyancy, self-efficacy, and burnout. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 947434.
40. Ding, J., & Xie, Z. (2021). Psychological empowerment and work burnout among rural teachers: Professional identity as a mediator. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 49(6), 1–9.
41. Ding, N., Wang, Y., & Wang, Y. (2025). English as a foreign language teacher’s well-being, resilience, and burnout. Porta Linguarum Revista Interuniversitaria de Didáctica de Las Lenguas Extranjeras, 43.
42. Doğru, Ç. (2018). The relationship between perceived support and innovative behavior: Analyzing the mediating role of work engagement. İşletme Araştırmaları Dergisi, 10(2), 384–402.
43. Fathi, J., Greenier, V., & Derakhshan, A. (2021). Self-efficacy, reflection, and burnout among Iranian EFL teachers: the mediating role of emotion regulation. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 9(2), 13–37.
44. Fernet, C., Senécal, C., Guay, F., Marsh, H., & Dowson, M. (2008). The work tasks motivation scale for teachers (WTMST). Journal of Career Assessment, 16(2), 256–279.
45. Ferradás, M. del M., Freire, C., García-Bértoa, A., Núñez, J. C., & Rodríguez, S. (2019). Teacher profiles of psychological capital and their relationship with burnout. Sustainability, 11(18), 5096.
46. Freudenberger, H. J. (1974). Staff burn‐out. Journal of Social Issues, 30(1), 159–165.
47. García-Arroyo, J. A., O. S. A., & P. J. M. (2019). Meta-analytical review of teacher burnout across 36 societies: the role of national learning assessments and gender egalitarianism. Psychology & Health, 34(6), 733–753.
48. Geng, Xi., Zhai, Y., & Ma, L. (2024). Management of college teachers’ work motivation from the perspective of self-determination theory. Journal of Social Sciences of Jiamusi University, 42(1), 142–145.
49. Han, J., & Yin, H. (2016). Teacher motivation: Definition, research development and implications for teachers. Cogent Education, 3(1), 1217819.
50. Hansen, A., Buitendach, J. H., & Kanengoni, H. (2015). Psychological capital, subjective well-being, burnout and job satisfaction amongst educators in the Umlazi region in South Africa. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 13(1), 1–9.
51. Herman, K. C., Hickmon-Rosa, J., & Reinke, W. M. (2018). Empirically derived profiles of teacher stress, burnout, self-efficacy, and coping and associated student outcomes. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 20(2), 90–100.
52. Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513.
53. Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). The influence of culture, community, and the nested‐self in the stress process: Advancing conservation of resources theory. Applied Psychology, 50(3), 337–421.
54. Hu, Y., He, G., & Wang, W. (2023). Profiles of Chinese teachers’ emotional labor: Evolution and relations with job demands, resources, and burnout. Teaching and Teacher Education, 132, 104230.
55. Hu Yingying, Yang Yiming, & Wang Wenjing. (2025). The longitudinal relationship between emotional labor and job burnout of primary and secondary school teachers: the chain mediating role of emotional resilience and teacher student relationship. Psychological Development and Education, 3, 357–367.
56. Ingersoll, R. M., & Strong, M. (2011). The impact of induction and mentoring programs for beginning teachers: A critical review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 201–233.
57. Janssen, O. (2000). Job demands, perceptions of effort‐reward fairness and innovative work behavior. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73(3), 287–302.
58. Ji, D., & Yue, Y. (2020). Relationship between kindergarten organizational climate and teacher burnout: work–family conflict as a mediator. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, 408.
59. Lei, W., Li, J., Li, Y., Castaño, G., Yang, M., & Zou, B. (2021). The boundary conditions under which teaching–research conflict leads to university teachers’ job burnout. Studies in Higher Education, 46(2), 406–422.
60. Lesener, T., Gusy, B., & Wolter, C. (2019). The job demands-resources model: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies. Work & Stress, 33(1), 76–103.
61. Li, J., Ju, S.-Y., Kong, L.-K., & Jiang, N. (2023). A study on the mechanism of spiritual leadership on burnout of elementary and secondary school teachers: The mediating role of career calling and emotional intelligence. Sustainability, 15(12), 9343.
62. Li, K., Xu, X., Zhang, Y., & Xu, X. (2024). The influence of environmental factors on the job burnout of physical education teachers in tertiary education. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 9126.
63. Li, P., Zhang, Z. C., Yang, Y., Yang, J. Q., & Li, H. Y. (2022). The impact of work stress on job burnout among primary and secondary school teachers: The chain mediating role of emotional labor and job satisfaction. Studies of Psychology and Behavior, 20(3), 412–418.
64. Li, R., Liu, H., Chen, Y., & Yao, M. (2021). Why teachers want to leave? The roles of achievement goals, burnout and perceived school context. Learning and Individual Differences, 89, 102032.
65. Li, S. (2023). The effect of teacher self-efficacy, teacher resilience, and emotion regulation on teacher burnout: a mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1185079.
66. Li, X., & Huo, M. (2025). Crescendos of support: The leadership–burnout nexus among Chinese music teachers. Social Behavior and Personality, 53(2).
67. Lian, L., Guo, S., Wang, Q., Hu, L., Yang, X., & Li, X. (2021). Calling, character strengths, career identity, and job burnout in young Chinese university teachers: A chain-mediating model. Children and Youth Services Review, 120, 105776.
68. Lin, Y., Ameyaw, M. A., Zhang, Q., Sun, B., & Li, W. (2022). The relationship between teacher professional identity and burnout amid the pandemic: A moderated mediation model. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 956243.
69. Liu, D., & Du, R. (2024). Psychological capital, mindfulness, and teacher burnout: insights from Chinese EFL educators through structural equation modeling. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1351912.
70. Liu, F., Chen, H., Xu, J., Wen, Y., & Fang, T. (2021). Exploring the relationships between resilience and turnover intention in Chinese high school teachers: considering the moderating role of job burnout. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(12), 6418.
71. Liu Jiahong, Feng Jianfeng, & Qin Xinxin. (2023). A study on the impact of teaching motivation on job burnout among primary and secondary school teachers: The mediating role of teachers’ social-emotional competence. Teacher Education Research, 02, 97–104.
72. Liu, T., & Wang, Q. (2024). Are Teachers’ Time Resources Scarce? The Association between Teachers’ Time Poverty and Job Burnout: The Mediating Effect of Mental Health Factors.
73. Luk, A. L., Chan, B. P. S., Cheong, S. W., & Ko, S. K. K. (2010). An exploration of the burnout situation on teachers in two schools in Macau. Social Indicators Research, 95, 489–502.
74. Ma, Y., & Liu, Z. (2024). Emotion regulation and well-being as factors contributing to lessening burnout among Chinese EFL teachers. Acta Psychologica, 245, 104219.
75. Maor, R., & Hemi, A. (2021). Relationships between role stress, professional identity, and burnout among contemporary school counselors. Psychology in the Schools, 58(8), 1597–1610.
76. Maslach, C. (2017). Finding solutions to the problem of burnout. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 69(2), 143.
77. Maslach, C. (2018). Burnout: A multidimensional perspective. In Professional burnout (pp. 19–32). CRC Press.
78. Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2(2), 99–113.
79. Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1986). Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual. Consulting Psychologists.
80. Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. P. (2008). Early predictors of job burnout and engagement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(3), 498.
81. Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 397–422.
82. McAnally, K., & Hagger, M. S. (2024). Self-Determination Theory and Workplace Outcomes: A Conceptual Review and Future Research Directions. Behavioral Sciences, 14(6), 428.
83. Ouellette, R. R., Frazier, S. L., Shernoff, E. S., Cappella, E., Mehta, T. G., Maríñez-Lora, A., Cua, G., & Atkins, M. S. (2018). Teacher job stress and satisfaction in urban schools: Disentangling individual-, classroom-, and organizational-level influences. Behavior Therapy, 49(4), 494–508.
84. Pei, S., Wang, S., Jiang, R., Guo, J., & Ni, J. (2024). How work stress influence turnover intention among Chinese local undergraduate university teachers: the mediating effect of job burnout and the moderating effect of self-efficacy. Frontiers in Public Health, 12, 1308486.
85. Persson, M., et al. (2017). Chinese academics “under more stress than rest of world.” The Times Higher Education.
86. Pinder, C. C. (2014). Work motivation in organizational behavior. psychology press.
87. Pong, H.-K. (2022). The correlation between spiritual well-being and burnout of teachers. Religions, 13(8), 760.
88. Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organizational support: a review of the literature. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 698.
89. Richards, K. A. R., Levesque-Bristol, C., Templin, T. J., & Graber, K. C. (2016). The impact of resilience on role stressors and burnout in elementary and secondary teachers. Social Psychology of Education, 19, 511–536.
90. Richardson, P. W., & Watt, H. M. G. (2018). Teacher professional identity and career motivation: A lifespan perspective. Research on Teacher Identity: Mapping Challenges and Innovations, 37–48.
91. Rizvi, R., Rizvi, A. M., & Jamal, A. (2023). The Interplay of Perceived Organizational Support, Innovation at Work, and Burnout among Teachers. Bahria Journal of Professional Psychology, 22(1), 38–55.
92. Robinson, O. P., Bridges, S. A., Rollins, L. H., & Schumacker, R. E. (2019). A study of the relation between special education burnout and job satisfaction. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 19(4), 295–303.
93. Roohani, A., & Dayeri, K. (2019). On the Relationship between Iranian EFL Teachers’ Burnout and Motivation: A Mixed Methods Study. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 7(1), 77–99.
94. Rubino, C., Luksyte, A., Perry, S. J., & Volpone, S. D. (2009). How do stressors lead to burnout? The mediating role of motivation. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14(3), 289.
95. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67.
96. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68.
97. Ryan, R. M., Huta, V., & Deci, E. L. (2008). Living well: A self-determination theory perspective on eudaimonia. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 139–170.
98. Salmela-Aro, K., Hietajärvi, L., & Lonka, K. (2019). Work burnout and engagement profiles among teachers. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2254.
99. Sato, M., Fernández Castillo, F., & Oyanedel, J. C. (2022a). Teacher motivation and burnout of English-as-a-foreign-language teachers: do demotivators really demotivate them? Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 891452.
100. Schaufeli, W. B., & Bakker, A. B. (2004a). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi‐sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 25(3), 293–315.
101. Sheng, A., Liu, X., & Hong, Y. (2024). The Moderating Effect of Inhibition of Emotional Expression on the Relationship Between Stress and Job Burnout of College Teachers. Proceedings of the 2024 5th International Conference on Education, Knowledge and Information Management (ICEKIM 2024), 373.
102. Silva, S. M. F., & Oliveira, Á. de F. (2019). Burnout among teachers in private institutions of higher education. Psicologia Escolar e Educacional, 23, e187785.
103. Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2017). Dimensions of teacher burnout: Relations with potential stressors at school. Social Psychology of Education, 20, 775–790.
104. Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2020). Teacher burnout: relations between dimensions of burnout, perceived school context, job satisfaction and motivation for teaching. A longitudinal study. Teachers and Teaching, 26(7–8), 602–616.
105. Song, M. (2022a). Chinese English as foreign language teachers’ self-efficacy and motivation as predictors of burnout. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 899687.
106. Song, Y., Zhao, W., Wang, X., & Li, J. (2024). The impact of job stress on burnout in Chinese teachers: The mediating roles of social support and psychological empowerment. Psychology in the Schools, 61(1), 253–271.
107. Stankevičiūtė, Ž., & Savanevičienė, A. (2021). Can sustainable HRM reduce work-related stress, work-family conflict, and burnout? In International Perspectives on Employee Engagement (pp. 88–107). Routledge.
108. Su, Q., & Jiang, M. (2023). “Ideal employees” and “good wives and mothers”: Influence mechanism of bi-directional work–family conflict on job satisfaction of female university teachers in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1166509.
109. Sun, C., Feng, X., Sun, B., Li, W., & Zhong, C. (2022). Teachers’ professional identity and burnout among Chinese female school teachers: Mediating roles of work engagement and psychological capital. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(20), 13477.
110. Sun, W., & Dapat, R. (2024). Unraveling Job Stress, Burnout, and Psychological Capital among Chinese EFL Teachers in Higher Institutions. International Education Studies, 17(5), 29–44.
111. Tian, J., Mao, Y. Q., & Xiong, H. X. (2021). The impact of transformational leadership on teacher burnout: The chain mediating role of social-emotional competence and well-being. Psychological Development and Education, 05, 743–751.
112. Tian, J., Zhang, W., Mao, Y., & Gurr, D. (2022). The impact of transformational leadership on teachers’ job burnout: the mediating role of social-emotional competence and student-teacher relationship. Journal of Educational Administration, 60(4), 369–385.
113. Tian, Y., & Guo, Y. (2024). How does transformational leadership relieve teacher burnout: the role of self-efficacy and emotional intelligence. Psychological Reports, 127(2), 936–956.
114. Trinidad, J. E. (2021). Teacher satisfaction and burnout during COVID-19: what organizational factors help? International Journal of Leadership in Education, 1–19.
115. Tsang, K. K., Du, Y., & Teng, Y. (2022). Transformational leadership, teacher burnout, and psychological empowerment: A mediation analysis. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 50(1), 1–11.
116. Tsang, K. K., Teng, Y., Lian, Y., & Wang, L. (2021). School management culture, emotional labor, and teacher burnout in Mainland China. Sustainability, 13(16), 9141.
117. Tsang,K. K., Wang, G., & Bai, H. (2022). Enabling school bureaucracy, psychological empowerment, and teacher burnout: a mediation analysis. Sustainability, 14(4), 2047.
118. Urdan, T. (2014). Concluding commentary: Understanding teacher motivation: What is known and what more there is to learn. In Teacher Motivation (pp. 227–246). Routledge.
119. Wang, G.-H., Li, J.-H., Liu, H., & Zaggia, C. (2023). The association between workplace ostracism and knowledge-sharing behaviors among Chinese university teachers: The chain mediating model of job burnout and job satisfaction. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1030043.
120. Wang, S., & Li, Z. (2023). A Study on the Causes and Intervention of Job Burnout of Young Teachers in Chinese Vocational Colleges. Journal of Namibian Studies: History Politics Culture, 33, 4607–4626.
121. Wang, X. (2023). The Major Factor about Youth Teachers’ Burnout in Private University of Mainland China. The Educational Review, USA, 7(4), 437–442.
122. Washburn, N. S., Simonton, K. L., Richards, K. A. R., & Lee, Y. H. (2021). Examining role stress, emotional intelligence, emotional exhaustion, and affective commitment among secondary physical educators. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 41(4), 669–679.
123. Wei, C., & Ye, J.-H. (2022). The impacts of work-life balance on the emotional exhaustion and well-being of college teachers in China. Healthcare, 10(11), 2234.
124. Xie, M., Huang, S., Ke, L., Wang, X., & Wang, Y. (2022). The development of teacher burnout and the effects of resource factors: A latent transition perspective. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(5), 2725.
125. Xing, Z. (2022). English as a foreign language teachers’ work engagement, burnout, and their professional identity. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 916079.
126. Xu, L. (2019). Teacher–researcher role conflict and burnout among Chinese university teachers: a job demand-resources model perspective. Studies in Higher Education, 44(6), 903–919.
127. Xu, L., Guo, J., Zheng, L., & Zhang, Q. (2023). Teacher well-being in Chinese universities: examining the relationship between challenge—hindrance stressors, job satisfaction, and teaching engagement. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2), 1523.
128. Xu, Z., & Yang, F. (2021). The impact of perceived organizational support on the relationship between job stress and burnout: a mediating or moderating role? Current Psychology, 40, 402–413.
129. Xue, D., Sun, B., Li, W., Zhou, H., Ding, F., & Xiao, W. (2023). The symptom network structure of teachers’ burnout and its connection to psychological capital. Psychology Research and Behavior Management, 3503–3518.
130. Yang, C., Chan, M., Lin, X., & Chen, C. (2022). Teacher victimization and teacher burnout: Multilevel moderating role of school climate in a large-scale survey study. Journal of School Violence, 21(2), 206–221.
131. Yew, V. G. W., & Ramos, H. M. (2019). The relationship between perceived organizational support, age, and burnout: Implications for the Malaysian higher education workplace. International Journal of Employment Studies, 27(2), 35–57.
132. Yin, W. (2023). Psychological capital moderates the effect of emotional labor strategies on job burnout in college teachers. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 51(1), 1–8.
133. Yu, C., Yiyuan, L., & Yanling, M. (2023). The Relationship between Job Burnout and Turnover Intention of Vocational Colleges in Yunnan China. International Journal of Education and Management, 8, 53.
134. Zang, N., Cao, H., Zhou, N., Jiang, L., & Li, B. (2022). Job load, job stress, and job exhaustion among Chinese junior middle school teachers: Job satisfaction as a mediator and teacher’s role as a moderator. Social Psychology of Education, 25(5), 1003–1030.
135. Zeng, Y., Liu, Y., & Peng, J. (2024). Noticing the unnoticed: Teacher self-efficacy as a mediator between school context and teacher burnout in developing regions. Revista de Psicodidáctica (English Ed.).
136. Zewude, G. T., & Hercz, M. (2022). The Role of Positive psychological capital in the prediction of teachers’ well-being mediated through motivation: A Review of literature. Athens Journal of Health and Medical Sciences, 9(4), 245–264.
137. Zhang, J., Bai, D. H., Song, P. W., Yuan, R., & Zhang, Z. D. (2022). An empirical study on the impact of work stress, psychological resilience, and leisure sports participation on job burnout among university teachers under the new situation. Chinese Journal of Health Psychology, 30(11), 1660–1668.
138. Zhang, L., Zhao, J., & Ren, J. (2024). Research on the construction path of “dual-teacher, triple-competence” teaching staff in higher vocational colleges from the perspective of industry-education integration. Modern Vocational Education, 10, 41–44.
139. Zhang, Q., Li, W., Gao, J., Sun, B., & Lin, S. (2024). Teachers’ professional identity and job burnout: The mediating roles of work engagement and psychological capital. Psychology in the Schools, 61(1), 123–136.
140. Zhang, Q., Li, X., & Gamble, J. H. (2022). Teacher burnout and turnover intention in higher education: The mediating role of job satisfaction and the moderating role of proactive personality. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1076277.
141. Zhang, W., He, E., Mao, Y., Pang, S., & Tian, J. (2023). How teacher social-emotional competence affects job burnout: The chain mediation role of teacher-student relationship and well-being. Sustainability, 15(3), 2061.
142. Zhang, Y., Zhang, S., & Hua, W. (2019). The impact of psychological capital and occupational stress on teacher burnout: Mediating role of coping styles. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 28, 339–349.
143. Zhao, S., ShouChen, Z., & Hong, W. (2024). Impact of Multiple Job Demands on Chinese University Teachers’ Turnover Intentions. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 1–11.
144. Zhao, W., Liao, X., Li, Q., Jiang, W., & Ding, W. (2022). The relationship between teacher job stress and burnout: A moderated mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 784243.
145. Zhao, X., Wu, K., Sun, B., & Li, W. (2022). Teacher career calling reduces burnout: The mediation effects of work engagement and psychological capital. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 988467.
146. Zhen, B., Yao, B., & Zhou, X. (2023). Acute stress disorder and job burnout in primary and secondary school teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic: The moderating effect of sense of control. Current Psychology, 42(23), 19853–19860.
147. Zheng, Y. (2022a). A review of burnout in college English teachers in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 884304.
148. Zhong, Y., Lai, S., Li, Y., Yang, K., Tang, H., & Zhang, X. (2025). Burnout and its relationship with depressive symptoms in primary school teachers under the “Double Reduction” policy in China. Frontiers in Public Health, 12, 1420452.
149. Zhou, C. Y., Hou, Y. R., Huang, H., Li, L., Liu, C. L., & Song, J. J. (2022). The impact of psychological empowerment on job burnout among primary and secondary school teachers: The different roles of surface acting and deep acting. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 30(3), 583–587.
150. Zhou, K., & Wang, J. (2025). Workplace anxiety leading to job burnout among young and middle-aged university lecturers: mechanism and mitigation strategies. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1495718.
151. Zhou, Z., Ran, Y., & Shi, W. (2023). Exploration of role expectations and multiple role models of vocational education teachers: A comparative analysis based on the professional standards texts of vocational education teachers in China, the USA, and the UK. Education and Vocation, 15, 72–79.
152. Zhu, X., Tian, G., Yin, H., & He, W. (2021). Is familism a motivator or stressor? Relationships between Confucian familism, emotional labor, work-family conflict, and emotional exhaustion among Chinese teachers. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 766047.
153. Zou Peiyun. (2023). Attribution and guidance of job burnout among young university teachers: An analysis based on the “Hybrid Four-Factor Model.” China Youth Studies, 1, 105–112.