Factors Affecting Senior Police Officers’ Participation in Part-Time Jobs

Factors Affecting Senior Police Officers’ Participation in Part-Time Jobs

Norrafida Leman & Suraiya Ishak*

Center for Research in Development, Social and Environment, Faculty of social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9020265

Received: 12 February 2025; Accepted: 17 February 2025; Published: 17 March 2025

ABSTRACT

The involvement in part-time jobs among individuals in low-income groups is primarily aimed at meeting their basic needs that are insufficiently covered by income from their main jobs. However, the involvement of individuals in middle and high-income groups in part-time jobs is expected to be driven by different motivational factors compared to those in lower-income groups. This study aims to analyze the factors influencing the involvement of senior police officers in part-time jobs within the framework of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory. The study employs a survey to collect relevant data. The study population consists of 298 senior police officers stationed in four contingents in the state of Melaka, with questionnaires distributed to a sample of 169 senior police officers. Stratified sampling techniques were used at the first level to determine the sample units based on the different contingents. Meanwhile, purposive sampling was employed at the second level to select individual respondents, with 93 identified as having engaged in part-time jobs.  Regression analysis was used to analyse the factors influencing involvement in part-time jobs. Based on the analysis, two significant factors were found to motivate senior police officers to engage in part-time jobs: the expansion of social networks and the acquisition of new skills. The implications of the findings suggest that senior police officers engaged in part-time work aim to fulfil their needs for self-achievement and career progression through the expansion of social networks and the acquisition of new skills.  The contribution of this study aligns with the goal of promoting decent work and economic growth for all.

Keywords: part-time jobs, police officers, social networks, new skills, Maslow theory, motivation

INTRODUCTION

Engaging in multiple jobs is not a new phenomenon in contemporary society, including among public servants (Gandhi et al., 2024; Gulati, 2023). Sabron & Hassim (2018) found that public sector workers exhibit a high level of involvement in part-time work. This trend is expected to persist due to current economic challenges, which have made part-time work a primary option for alleviating financial pressure (Arnneka & Nisha, 2024). Financial factors, particularly the need for additional income, are often the primary drivers behind individuals’ decisions to take on a second or part-time job to fulfill basic or lower-order needs (Mohd Aqmin et al., 2018; Adebisi, 2019).  Research by Mohd Aqmin et al. (2018) revealed that an increase in income led to rapid improvements in household living standards, as evidenced by the expenditure-income elasticity indicators for three primary goods—food, housing, and transportation—which varied according to income categories.  This situation ultimately contributed to the rising cost of living. As a result, part-time employment has become an alternative means of supporting the increasing cost of living.  According to their study, the middle-income group is more likely to prioritize purchasing property, with excess income often spent on property as an investment. This situation frequently increases the likelihood of part-time work involvement to offset the overall rise in living costs.

The Malaysia Human Resource Service Circular states that the government does not object to civil servants taking on part-time work, provided that such employment does not jeopardize the department’s reputation and complies with established procedures. This provides an opportunity for Malaysian civil servants to engage in part-time jobs. One important public service organization is the police force. According to Azlan et al. (2024), the police serve as an institution responsible for ensuring the safety and security of the nation. Police officers are tasked with specific duties related to maintaining public order. However, research on the factors influencing police officers’ job performance remains limited (Azlan et al. 2024). Given their varied personal needs, police officers’ motivation is likely to improve in a working environment that allow them to fulfill their needs in parallel with their socio-economic circumstances. One of the activity that contribute to the individual job performance is the part-time job as it potentially allows employees to meet their needs according to their priorities. While the extent of police officers’ involvement in part-time work is not well understood, existing studies suggest that some officers do engage in such employment. In South Australia (SA) in 2008, about 6% of the 4,100 police officers participated in part-time work (Owen, 2008). The Police Federation of England found that 7.8% of police officers in England had sought additional employment (Anon, 2018). Additionally, a survey by the Police Federation revealed that 44% of police officers took on part-time jobs due to financial concerns (Anon, 2018). Thus, it suggest that senior police officers may be motivated to pursue part-time work for a variety of reasons.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Part-time work is a term derived from ‘moonlighting,’ which refers to individuals holding a second job, typically done at night and often in secret, in addition to their main job (Gandhi et al., 2024; Gulati, 2023; Sabron & Hassim, 2018). According to Rohini et al. (2023), moonlighting refers to the practice of working for one organization while simultaneously taking on additional tasks as a job, usually without the employer’s knowledge. Moonlighting or multiple jobs is the practice of holding a second job in addition to the primary job, which can occur either during the working hours of the main job or during leisure time after it ends (Ashwini et al., 2017; Ara, 2016). Therefore, terms such as moonlighting, dual jobs, multiple jobs, additional jobs, side jobs, and part-time jobs all refer to the concept of working part-time while simultaneously maintaining a full-time primary job.

According to Gulati (2023), moonlighting or part-time work can be categorized into four types consist of:

Blue Moonlighting
Blue moonlighting refers to the disappointing situation employees face when their efforts in part-time work fail. It occurs when employees struggle to manage two jobs simultaneously or when an individual’s search for part-time work proves futile.

Full Moonlighting
Full moonlighting involves employees who dedicate their entire time to a part-time job alongside their main job. In this case, the part-time work becomes a significant factor in determining the employee’s financial position and social status, with both jobs running concurrently.

Half Moonlighting
In half moonlighting, individuals engage in part-time work to earn additional income, save for the future, and enjoy a more luxurious lifestyle. They dedicate up to 50% of their time to part-time work, balancing this with their primary job.

Quarter Moonlighting
Quarter moonlighting refers to employees who take on part-time work after their main job due to dissatisfaction with the salary they receive. The part-time job serves as a mean to supplement their income, helping to meet daily needs or rising basic expenses.

Engagement in part-time work is often associated with the pursuit of supplementary income to meet insufficient living needs (Karim et al., 2021; Surip, 2019). However, participation in part-time employment can also be motivated by factors such as social needs, self-esteem, and the fulfillment of self-actualization or higher-order needs. This is especially relevant when considering social groups in middle and upper-income categories, as they are likely to have different motivations for engaging in part-time work. This study offers valuable insights for the field of Human Resource Management by enhancing the primary job contexts, which can improve work motivation and productivity among employees in the middle and upper socio-economic classes. Understanding these factors is crucial for HR management or policymakers, as it enables them to create environments that promote decent work across various employee groups, tailored to their needs and motivations. Figure 1 illustrates Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs pyramid according to Maslow’s theory.

Figure 1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Based on this hierarchy, humans are beings with needs, and each need is fulfilled progressively (Trivedi and Mehta, 2019). Individuals will first strive to satisfy their lower-level needs, and once these are met, they will move on to fulfilling higher-level needs. Lower-order needs refer to physiological and safety-related needs, while higher-order needs encompass social needs, self-esteem, and self-actualization.  Social needs relate to the human desire to belong to a group and to be accepted by a group that they deem important or valuable. Self-esteem needs refer to the desire to be respected and valued by others, to have power, and to occupy a prestigious position. The sense of self-esteem is derived from two sources: internal (such as self-confidence and self-respect) and external (such as receiving recognition and praise from others). Self-actualization, on the other hand, refers to the sense of achieving one’s highest potential or attaining true life happiness. In this regard, an individual’s involvement in part-time work represents an effort to fulfill these needs and is expected to align with their respective socio-economic categories.

There have been a few studies investigating the motives for part-time job involvement among employees across different occupational context.  A qualitative study by Mapira et al. (2023) involving casual workers in manufacturing firms in Zimbabwe revealed that the majority of these workers gained significant benefits from part-time employment, including the acquisition of new skills that promoted job mobility, enhanced financial stability, and reduced job insecurity. Similarly, a study by Mittal & Kaur (2018) focusing on private and public school teachers found that private school teachers were more likely to engage in part-time work for financial reasons compared to their public school counterparts. This finding is further supported by a study conducted by Karim et al. (2021) on low-income groups in Selangor, which identified that individuals in this group took on part-time work due to the rising cost of living, the desire for a more comfortable lifestyle, and the need to support educational expenses for their children or family members. These findings suggest that the primary motivation for respondents engaging in part-time work is financial necessity.

The study by Timothy & Nkwama (2017) highlights that financial constraints, economic hardship, and low salaries are key factors driving university lecturers to engage in part-time work or hold multiple jobs. The lecturers choose to participate in moonlighting for various reasons, including earning additional income, repaying debts, starting a business, and deriving enjoyment from a second job. Furthermore, the study by Vipanchi et al. (2023) confirms that factors such as primary job responsibilities and hedonic needs—such as pleasure and subjective happiness—motivate individuals to engage in moonlighting. In contrast, Gulati’s (2023) literature review states that moonlighting is pursued to supplement income, acquire new skills, expand social networks, and gain enjoyable experiences.

Based on the review of previous studies, involvement in multiple jobs is caused by various factors. This raises the question of whether the involvement of higher-income groups in part-time jobs, particularly senior police officers, is driven by lower-order or higher-order needs according to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. This study’s uniqueness lies in its contribution to the body of literature that seeks to explain the influencing factors of moonlighting within the specific context of senior police officers. It adds value to the general knowledge of moonlighting by uncovering a new perspective that focuses on a specific occupational group and income level. A conceptual framework of the driving factors for part-time employment has been developed based on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (see Figure 2).  According to this framework, the key determinants for engaging in part-time work include earning additional income, gaining new experiences, expanding social networks, acquiring new skills, expressing creativity or interests, flexibility in work schedules, exploring new opportunities and achieving personal satisfaction or accomplishment.  The factors encompass a variety of needs that influence participation in part-time jobs, such as earning additional income, which is linked to the lower-order needs in Maslow’s theory, as it is assumed that the income from the main job is insufficient to satisfy psychological and safety needs. Meanwhile, the other factors are connected to higher-order needs.

Figure 2 Concepual Research Framework

The relationship between Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory and job position level, which represents an individual’s socio-economic status in the study of factors influencing part-time work engagement, has been based on the study by Najjar and Fares (2017). According to their research, the motivation of workers differs between blue-collar and white-collar job groups. Therefore, the motivational elements for workers should not be generalized, as the distinct needs of different worker groups must be considered. It is expected that public sector employees, particularly those involved in law enforcement organizations, and individuals with higher incomes, will have different motivations for engaging in part-time work.  This study therefore aim to analyse the significant factors influencing participation in part time jobs among Malaysia senior police officers.

METHODOLOGY

This section elaborate son the methods according to the respective sub-topics.

Population and Sample

The study population consists of 298 senior police officers, ranging from the rank of Inspector to DSP, in the state of Malacca, Malaysia. The sample size, calculated using the Krejcie and Morgan formula, is 169 officers. Sample selection was carried out using a stratified proportional sampling technique. In the first stage, the sample was divided according to the four Police Contingent Headquarters. Then, the total sample for each assignment location was determined using the proportional technique. In the second stage, a purposive sampling technique was employed to distribute the questionnaires to the respondents. Approximately 93 respondents, or 55% of the sample, have been involved in part-time work. The unit of analysis for the study consists of the group of respondents who have engaged in part-time work.

Instrument

This study employed a survey using a Google Forms questionnaire administered to the target respondents. The questionnaire consists of four sections: respondent background, part-time employment information, factors driving part-time employment, and the level of involvement in part-time work. A pilot study was conducted to assess the reliability of the measurement instrument, and the results of the reliability test are presented in Table 2. The data were analysed using regression analysis methods. The choice of analysis technique was made due to its suitability for the study, which aims to explore the significant factors influencing participation in part-time jobs among senior police officers. Regression analysis allows for testing the model, which includes the relevant independent variables.

Table 2 Measurement Consistency Test Result

RESULTS

The respondents’ demographic profiles are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Demografi Responden

The part-time employment undertaken by the respondents reveals the following: 11 individuals (11.8%) engage in online business, 10.8% participate in gig services, 16.1% work as freelance writers, 14.0% work as graphic designers, 22.6% work as insurance agents, 11.8% work as real estate agents, and 12.9% provide catering services, accept food orders, or manage food businesses. In terms of monthly income received from part-time work, 40.9% earn RM400 or below, 17.2% earn between RM401 and RM600, 3.2% earn between RM601 and RM800, 20.4% earn between RM801 and RM1,000, and 18.3% earn RM1,001 or more.

In terms of the estimated total hours worked on part-time employment within a month, 12.9% work between 10 to 12 hours, 51.6% work between 13 to 15 hours, and 35.5% work between 16 to 19 hours. Based on the estimated hours spent on the part-time job, the involvement can be categorized as either full moonlighting or half moonlighting. Regarding the level of involvement in part-time work, 55% engage in part-time work on a limited basis, only during their free time, 42% engage in part-time work actively and consistently, while the remaining 3.2% balance both their main job and part-time work equally.

Factors Influence Involvement in Part Time Job

The regression analysis conducted indicates that, overall, the model of factors influencing senior police officers explains 37.6% of the variance in involvement in part-time employment (R² = 0.376) (Table 4).  According to Table 4, the factors “expanding social networks” (ß = 0.305, t = 2.142, p < 0.05) and “acquiring new skills” (ß = 0.541, t = 3.558, p < 0.01) found significantly influence involvement in part-time employment. These findings substantiate the arguments put forth by Najjar and Fares (2017), showing that individuals across different job roles have varying motivational drivers. Furthermore, the results affirm Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory, which posits that human needs exist in a hierarchical structure, with individuals striving to fulfill lower-level needs before progressing to higher-level needs. The findings also align with the research of Vipanchi et al. (2023) and Gulati (2023), which emphasize the role of social factors in motivating individuals to engage in part-time work.

The factors influencing involvement in part-time employment, such as earning additional income (ß = 0.020, t(84) = 0.085, p > 0.05), gaining new experiences (ß = -0.176, t(84) = -0.618, p > 0.05), expressing creativity or personal interests (ß = -0.019, t(84) = -0.077, p > 0.05), flexibility in work schedules (ß = -0.219, t(84) = -1.229, p > 0.05), exploring new opportunities (ß = -0.080, t(84) = -0.614, p > 0.05), and personal satisfaction or achievement (ß = -0.184, t(84) = -0.579, p > 0.05), were found to have no significant influence.

Table 4 Factors Influence Involvement in Part Time Job

DISCUSSION

This study has identified two significant factors influencing involvement in part-time jobs among senior police officers. The first significant factor is the acquisition of new skills. Engaging in part-time work provides officers with a valuable opportunity to broaden their professional knowledge and experience. Part-time employment allows for the development of skills that may not be attainable through their regular duties as police officers. This pursuit of new skills can be contextualized within the fourth level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, specifically the “esteem needs” or “self-esteem” level. This level encompasses the need for self-respect, accomplishment, and recognition from others. Acquiring new skills enhances self-confidence and fosters a sense of achievement, which corresponds to these psychological needs. Furthermore, the ability to enhance personal credibility through the acquisition of knowledge and skills beyond the traditional scope of police work can directly improve officers’ competency in their primary professional duties. This is particularly significant as the integration of new skills and knowledge allows police officers to better understand contemporary issues and handle cases in an evolving social and criminal landscape. The increasing complexity of societal and criminal problems requires the continual development of broad competencies to ensure police officers remain effective in addressing these challenges. Additionally, when the new skills attained contribute to achieving broader personal or professional objectives, they may align with the fifth level of Maslow’s Hierarchy, “self-actualization.” At this stage, individuals strive to realize their full potential, fostering personal growth and further enhancing their professional capabilities.

Senior police officers engaged in part-time employment are also motivated to expand their social networks. A social network refers to a group of individuals interconnected through personal or professional relationships. Expanding social networks offers various benefits, including access to job opportunities, advice, mentorship, as well as emotional and social support. A strong social network can enhance well-being, reduce stress, and improve the quality of life among public servants involved in the vital role of maintaining public safety. A broad network facilitates the achievement of personal and professional goals through assistance and collaboration, while also providing access to valuable information and resources. Furthermore, it enriches experiences, fosters personal development, and offers emotional support from a larger community. Overall, expanding social networks is essential for building a more meaningful and successful life.

In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, the first level, physiological needs, relates to basic survival requirements such as food, water, air, and shelter. Once these needs are fulfilled, individuals progress to the second level, safety needs. Safety needs encompass protection from physical and emotional threats, financial stability, and environmental security. Once the physiological and safety needs are satisfied, individuals will focus on their social needs, which constitute the third level in Maslow’s hierarchy. Social needs include relationships, friendships, and the desire for acceptance within a group or community. At this stage, individuals seek positive social interactions and fulfilling connections with others. The findings suggest that senior police officers have attained stability in the basic aspects of life and now seek strong social relationships to achieve self-actualization. The need for social acceptance and meaningful connections becomes a primary focus as they strive to elevate themselves to higher levels of personal and professional development.

Based on the analysis results, the factors motivating involvement in part-time work among public servants in high-ranking police organizations are categorized as higher-order needs. Earning additional income is not the primary motivator for engaging in part-time work within this group, as many respondents earn RM400 or less from part-time employment (40.9%), followed by RM601 to RM800 for 20.4% of respondents. The level of involvement in part-time work primarily reflects limited engagement, typically only during leisure time. Therefore, the involvement of police officers in part-time work is most often in the form of “full moonlighting” or “half moonlighting.” The income received from the part-time job is not the ultimate reason for the senior officers’ involvement in part-time work. Participation in part-time work does not interfere with their core police duties, as most respondents are engaged in occupations such as insurance agents, freelance writers, and catering/food ordering services, which can be carried out during their free time or outside of their official working hours.

Part-time jobs have long been seen as a platform for earning additional income among lower-income groups to supplement insufficient living expenses. However, this study demonstrates that moonlighting is not necessarily tied to lower-order needs throughout a different context. Therefore, it contributes to the existing body of knowledge by exploring the factors influencing moonlighting or part-time job participation, integrating Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory as the underlying framework. Furthermore, the study examines the issue within the specific context of higher-income groups, particularly in a police institution. Previous studies have not investigated this issue within the context of senior police officers, and our study enhances the existing literature in this regard. Future research may replicate this study in similar contexts and apply alternative rigorous analytical techniques to examine the exogenous and endogenous influences of other potential factors.

CONCLUSION

The main findings of this study indicate that senior police officers engage in part-time employment primarily to expand their social networks and acquire new skills. These findings align with previous studies which suggest that the primary motivations for part-time work include social interaction, enjoyment, and skill enhancement. A strong social network can enhance the quality of life, and at the same time, such networks can improve the effectiveness of police duties due to the positive relationships established with the community across various social classes. Furthermore, acquiring new skills through part-time employment can advance both personal and professional achievements, fulfilling the needs for self-esteem and self-actualization within Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.  In conclusion, part-time employment not only offers benefits in terms of building social networks and skill development but also satisfies a range of higher personal and professional needs, aiding individuals in achieving greater well-being and success.  The implications of this study suggest that part-time employment can serve as a mean to expand social networks, which may, in turn, benefit the execution of police duties due to the positive relationships formed between community members and police officers. Additionally, acquiring new skills through part-time employment enables officers to fulfil their needs for self-esteem and self-actualization, as outlined in Maslow’s hierarchy. Practically, this implies that institutions, such as police organizations, should consider supporting their officers in seeking part-time employment opportunities as a strategy to enhance their well-being and self-esteem. Part-time work can be an effective tool for empowering employees with additional skills and social connections, benefiting both personal and professional aspects, if it does not hinder their productivity in their primary roles.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Appreciation is extended to the officers of the Royal Malaysia Police (PDRM) and specifically to the Melaka Contingent for their assistance and cooperation in supporting this study.

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