Factors Determining Climate Change Adaptation Practices Among Communal Farmers. A Case Of Mwenezi District In Zimbabwe.

Factors Determining Climate Change Adaptation Practices Among Communal Farmers. A Case of Mwenezi District In Zimbabwe.

 Fanuel Muzerengi^1*, James Sengu², Christine Chawhanda³, Albert Mawonde⁴ ,Crecentia Pamidzai Gandidzanwa⁵

^1,3,5Department Of Community And Social Development, University Of Zimbabwe, PO Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe.

²Department Of Mathematics And Computational Science, University Of Zimbabwe, PO Box MP 167, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe.

⁴Department Of Environmental Science, University Of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa.

^*Corresponding author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9020310

Received: 10 February 2025; Accepted: 15 February 2025; Published: 20 March 2025

ABSTRACT

Climate change is now a threat to the totality of human existence resulting in deaths, malnutrition and crops failures among others. Whilst people may be aware of the existence of climate change, their degrees of awareness may differ, resulting in different climate change adaptation strategies usually wrongly implemented. The research hinges on identifying the determinants of climate change adaptation practices in the Matande communal lands in the drought risk zone of Mwenezi district,  Zimbabwe. Understanding the factors determining climate change adaptation aid in scheming strategies and policies for effective climate adaptation for household food security. The emerging statistics indicate that vulnerability to climate change increased exponentially in the study area. An exploratory sequential research design was used in this study. A sample of 78 participants was drawn from a population of 371 households using purposive and cluster sampling techniques. Researchers triangulated data collection using focus group discussions (FDGs), in-depth interviews, key informant interviews, observations and questionnaires. Data analysis was done using thematic content analysis for the qualitative component whereas, the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) was applied in the quantitative component of the study. The study seeks to identify and explore the influence of demographic factors on the adoption of climate adaptation strategies in Mwenezi district. The research found that determinants of climate change adaptation practices such as age, income and household size had statistically significant positive effect on household food security at a 5% level of significance or 95% confidence level except education status. Researchers called for capacity building for small-scale farmers so that climate change resilience programmes or adaptation issues are engaged with good knowledge.

Key words: climate change, adaptation practices, communal lands, vulnerability.

INTRODUCTION

Every person around the world is already experiencing the effects of climate change (Sellers 2016: 4). Zadawa and Omran, (2020) elaborate that climate change is now a threat to the totality of human existence. Williamson, Munro and Carlotti, (2021) espoused that in 2020 alone, 50% losses were recorded in crop yields globally. Silva, (2018) hints that the global demand for agricultural products is projected to double by 60 – 70 % by 2050 in response to population advancement. Positive climate adaptation is needed to avert food insecurity amidst climate chaos.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2018) strongly avows that the impacts of climate change are more pronounced in Africa because of impoverishment, limited coping capacity, budgetary constraints, technological deficit and highly variable climate.  Agriculture in Africa  stimulates economic growth and provides food security (Moyo, 2010; Baiyegunhi, 2018 and Chanza, 2015; Dzvimbo, Matamanda, Mawonde and Magijani, 2022). However, this projection has been tainted by climate change. Okajo-Iweala, (2020) and Sova, (2017) testified that Africa’s Growth Domestic Product (GDP) will be reduced by 7% in the year 2100 due to climate change.

People may be aware of the existence of climate change, however, their degrees of awareness may differ, resulting in different climate change adaptation strategies being implemented. The Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee (ZimVac, 2019) attests that 98% of households in Zimbabwe were not well equipped to deal with climate change. Ayanlade, (2017) and Dzvimbo et al. (2022) believe that climate change adaptation strategies are usually determined by age, level of education, family size, resources, gender, off-farming activities, geographical location and the nature of farming itself. Gautan and Andersen, (2016) ; Baiyegunhi, (2018) espoused that adopting adaptation measures could partially depend on earlier adopted methods informing decisions of resulting practices to achieve household food security. Climate change and its corresponding adaptation strategies are embedded within a complex web of social identities, gender roles, and power struggles over land within the various agro-ecological zones (Ngum & Bastiaensen, 2021).

Mwenezi district falls in the agro-ecological region IV and V. The agro-ecological regions IV and V are punctuated as the driest of all the regions in Zimbabwe, experiencing recurrent crop failures, and hot temperatures and receiving the lowest rainfall. Despite adaptive interventions corraboratively implemented by government, its development parteners and the community, in an attempt to bolster household food security among small-scale farmers, the emerging statistics indicate that vulnerability to climate change in Mweezi district increased exponentially. Harvests are poor or non existent due to high tempratures, poor sand soils and rainfall deficit (Chingarande and Matondi, 2020). In 2018 alone, an estimated 72 872 people in Mwenezi district were food insecure (ZimVAC, 2019). ZimVAC, (2022) further attests that 69% of households in Mwenezi were cereal insecure. Arguably, the current mode/trajectory of adaptation is undoubtedly unsustainable.

If the drivers behind the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies are not probed, the likely result would be colossal losses in livelihoods and unimaginable deaths of people, with the possibility of severity increasing in the future (Moniruzzaman, 2015). The study hypothesised that factors determining the adoption of climate adaptation strategies do not have statistically positive effect on household climate adaptation decisons. The null hypothesis (H0) accepted when the probability value p > α and rejected when p < α. Exploring the factors behind adaptation strategies adoption help to create the knowledge needed to develop policies to offset or at least ameliorate the problem of  persistent chronic food insecurity among small-scale farmers in semi-arid regions. The study is  guided by the following specific research objectives:

1. Exploring factors determining the adoption of climate adaptation strategies among small-scale farmers in Mwenezi district.
2. Assessing the contribution of demographic factors on household adoption of climate adaptation practices.
3. Examining ways in which factors determining climate change adaptation strategies can be used effectively to enhance household food security.

METHODOLOGY

Study area

Mwenezi district is situated 120 km to the South of the provincial capital Masvingo (Mutopo, 2014). The district shares borders with Chivi to the north, Chiredzi to the east, Beitbridge to the south and Mberengwa district to the west. It receives an average rainfall of 540 mm per year and highly abnormal temperatures above 25⁰c and low temperatures between 10-15⁰C in the hot summer period (Brazier, 2015; Shava and Gunhidzirai, 2017). The livelihood configurations revolve around small-scale farming strongly linked to rain-fed agriculture. Maize is regarded as the staple crop, although people also grow cowpeas, vegetables, sweet potatoes (mbambaira), ground and round nuts, small grains, usually sorghum, millet and rapoko. People also diversified livestock rearing.

Brazier, (2018) states that 90% of Mwenezi District falls under agro-ecological region V. The majority of households are persistently food insecure regarding cereals, as evidenced by statistics. The Zim Vac, (2022) attests that 69% of households in Mwenezi are usually cereal insecure from January to March.  Region V is suitable for animal husbandry (Muchara, 2010). Matande communal lands occupy approximately 65 km² with 371 households. It has a mountainous area. Runde, Shashe, Mamwa and Chivake Rivers dominate its drainage system. The near end of Matande communal lands is approximately 1km north of Neshuro Growth Point and is under Chief Negari.

Figure 1- Location of Mwenezi District in Zimabawe.

Research Design

The research adopted an exploratory sequential research design in which qualitative results build to quantitative methodology (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2018, Enosh, Tzafrir and Stovolovy, 2015). The research used a qualitative design in the first phase of the study to identify determinants of climate change adaptation strategies and followed with quantitative methods in the second phase to establish the correlation between determinants of adaptation practices and household food security.

Population and sample size

Acharya, Prakash, Saxena and Nigam, (2013) believe that population is the totality of the subjects under study. The study population consisted of 371 households in Matande communal lands. A minimum of thirty respondents is considered enough in a household survey (Cohen et al. 2007:101). A total of forty-five respondents for the quantitative study were identified through cluster sampling. Researchers first identified clusters and individuals within those clusters for the study. The study identified three (3) villages, namely Matande (154 families), Rutavo (157 families), and Mashindi (60 families), which make up Matande communal lands and clustered the sample to ensure representativeness of the population. The sample size in the qualitative phase was determined by saturation of data (Kumar, 2011), where researchers were not getting new information. The saturation point was reached by a sample comprising thirty-three respondents identified through purposive sampling. It had nine key informants and twenty-four small scale farmers.

Data collection

Triangulated data collection was done sequentially from Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews, in-depth interviews and observations for qualitative data, followed by a questionnaire for quantitative data extraction. Triangulation ensured the credibility and transferability of findings (Noble and Heale, 2019).

A total of two FGDs were employed on small-scale farmers comprising (10) respondents for each group, four males and six females. The group members consisted of household heads who made decisions regarding climate change adaptation strategies at the household level. Researchers were proficient in the Shona language used in the discussion. Therefore, FGDs were not done through an interpreter or by a third person as Denzin and Lincoln, (2005) recommended, ensuring that the data mined was in its original form without being diluted.

Four in-depth interviews were conducted with community members who had vast experiences in climate change and understood how they chose climate change adaptation practices. A small sample for in-depth interviews was adequate to gain insight into the lived experiences and in-depth knowledge of the researched topic (Moustakas, 1994; Denzin and Lincoln, 2005).

Researchers conducted a total of nine key informants’ interviews with the social welfare officer (1), Village head, veterinary officer (1), Agriculture Technical Extension Officer (AGRITEX ) (1), District Development office (1), Meteorological services (1) and non-governmental organisations (3). The researchers concluded unstructured interviews using key informant interviews to tie loose ends on issues raised in the former data mining instruments on the determinants of climate change strategies in Matande communal lands as Denzin and Lincoln, (2005) recommended.

The researchers observed the activities on climate change adaptation strategies as they were executed in Matande communal lands. It was observed that households with few labour complemented each other through household rotations on herding cattle, fieldwork, and planting and harvesting crops. The people in Matande communal lands were seen fencing their gardens, homes and field using tree branches of thorn bushes (ruzhowa) to protect their crops from wild animals and livestock. Observations were used because they go beyond gathering data from people who do not want to participate in the enquiry (Silverman, 2010).

The researchers concluded data collection by administering 45 questionnaires to small-scale farmers in Matande communal lands to collect data on the association between demographic characteristics and the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies. Of the 45 questionnaires administered to respondents, 43 were completed and returned, giving a 96% response rate. Respondents misplaced the remaining two questionnaires. Through the use of questionnaire, major determinants of climate change adaptation strategies were identified.

Ethics

Kombo and Tromp, (2006); Cohen et al. (2007) and Silverman, (2010) defined ethics as the behaviour of the researcher which is appropriate about the rights of those subjects under the study or those affected by it. The researchers first sought informed consent from the respondents before conducting questionnaires and group discussions. The researchers upheld informed consent, right to privacy, confidentiality, beneficence, respect, and honest with respondents in digging for information on factors determining climate change adaptation strategies in Matande communal lands, Ward 2, Mwenezi district.

Data analysis

The thematic approach was used for qualitative data. The study followed a six-phased thematic data analysis process prescribed by Braun and Clark, (2006). Researchers began with data familiarisation, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and finally producing the report. The SPSS software 21 version analysed quantitative data and presented it in diagrams and tables. The Pearson Chi-square test was used to determine the correlation between climate change adaptation strategy and determinants of adoption at the 5% level of significance (α = 0.05). Degrees of freedom (Df) were calculated using the following formula: Df = (Row total-1) (Column total-1). The null hypothesis (H₀) is accepted when the probability value p > α and rejected when p < α. Data from cross-tabulations were presented in graphs using the Excel software.

RESULTS

Demographic profile of study respondents

The study population had varied gender, age groups, marital status, occupations, education status and religions.  Findings show that 62.8% of the respondents were males and 37.2% were females. In terms of age, 44.2% of the inhabitants were between 35- 45 years old and 32.6% were more than 55 years old. The age group 15-25 consisted of 4.7% being the least represented. Regarding marital status, 69.8% of respondents were married, and 2.3% were single. A total of 67.4% depend on manual labour for survival. A significant number of households had between 4-6 members (62.8%), and the least range of more than nine members constituted 2.3%. Many of the respondents attained secondary education (46.5%). There were diverse religious practices, with the Apostolic sect at 37.2%, African traditional religion at 32.6% and non was Muslim. The socio-economic demographic information for the study’s respondents is in table 1.0.

Table 1.0: Socio-economic demographic profile for study respondents (n=43)

Source: Survey Results 2022/23

The quantitative study recruited fewer women because Matande communal lands are highly patriarchal. Women usually seek spousal validations for participation and refer back to their husbands on climate change adaptation decisions for confirmation (Jaka et al. 2021; Nyikahadzoi and Mugabe, 2015). The majority of the ages between 35-45 years and above 55 years reside in the rural areas and rely on subsistence agriculture for their living. The dominance of senior citizens coupled with the average household size of 4-6 members points to the problem of a shortage of labour for subsistence farming in rural areas. Senior citizens whose livelihoods are centred on agriculture are no longer productive. The inhabitants of Matande communal lands value the marriage institution, as more than half of the population was married. Bourdillon, (1976) and Cheater, (1986) declared that marriage guarantees women and children the right to resources and place within the kinship structure among the Shona in Zimbabwe.

Menial jobs were prevalent among respondents. The majority population was in poverty since menial jobs are the least paid. The ZimVac, (2022) attests that 69% of people in Mwenezi were in abject poverty living below the poverty line. Generally, many small-scale farmers were literate. The high literacy rate among the population influenced the completion of questionnaires by the study respondents, which stood at 96%. Religion was the influencing factor in the on-farm adaptation strategies (Ngum and Bastiaensen, 2021). FGDs revealed that women have the rights over land only to use which they do not own, they got it through male figures, usually relatives/ spouses, to grow ground and round nuts. Postulations by Pumenta, (2014), Ngum and Bastiaensen, (2021) show that women are constrained by religious and socio-cultural norms that forbid ownership of land by women, growing of cash crops and access to extension services.

Age and climate change adaptation strategies

Age of the head of the household affects the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies.  The two age groups of 35- 45 years and more than 55 years were dominating the various climate change adaptation practices employed to ensure household food security. Livestock rearing was done by almost every age group. The age group of 35-45 years cut across all the climate change adaptation measures as shown in Figure 2.0.

Source: Survey Results 2022/23

Figure 2.0: Age of household heads and the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies

The age group above 55 years employed traditional practices of growing small grains and those climate change adaptation mechanisms spearheaded by the government such as Pfumvudza because they were prioritised in the distribution of free inputs. Among the elders, pfumvudza was seen as a way of  serving the government by participating in programmes aimed at enhancing national food security.  However, they were not able to do labour-straining activities. A female small-scale farmer aged 73 years who participated in FGDs avers;

“The digging of holes is spine-breaking at my age, so I dropped the government agricultural initiated project (pfumvudza) because I do not have the required power to make station holes”.

Another male small-scale farmer aged 62 years who retired from the civil service had this to say during the in-depth interviews:

“We fought to liberate this country; now that I am old, my duty is to support government initiatives. So I adopted pfumvudza and used my pension money to hire youth who work on my pfumvudza plot”.

Monthly income versus climate change adaptation strategies

Different households deployed climate change adaptation practices that best suit their household monthly income level. Diversified cropping featured prominently and was adopted by twenty-five households with low incomes of less than US$100. Households with income above US$500 had a choice across all adaptation strategies. However, they were the only ones with insurance schemes and small-scale irrigation schemes. Figure 3.0 shows how monthly households influenced the uptake of climate change adaptation practices.

Source: Survey Results 2022/23

Figure 3.0: Household monthly income and adopted climate change practices.

Wealthier families deployed capital-intensive climate change adaptation practices. On the contrary, poor households have resorted to cost-effective climate change adaptation strategies. During the FGDs, one respondent had this to say,

“Poor households adopted pfumvudza because even those without cattle can harvest well by planting early using hoes. I do not have money to buy maize seeds, so I adopted pfumvudza because it is very cheap. We are sponsored with all the inputs from the government. If I had enough resources, the best thing to do is to have a small-scale irrigation project”. (Small scale farmer)

Another Small-scale farmer (male) aged 52 years vowed that,

“My neighbour has resources and is using a solar-powered borehole to feed his animals and for the irrigation of crops and horticultural products. He is food secure all year round. I cannot do the same because I do not have finances, but this is the best thing to do”.

Educational level versus climate change adaptation strategies

Climate change adaptation strategies were evenly spread across households regardless of the educational level of the household heads. Pfumvudza was adopted by two household heads (no education), none with primary education, five with secondary education and one with tertiary education. Crop diversification was a significant climate change strategy adopted by three household heads with primary and secondary education and four with tertiary education. Figure 4.0 shows the education status of household heads against the uptake of corresponding climate change adaptation strategies.

Source: Survey Results 2022/23

Figure 4.0 Education of households heads and adaptation practice decisions

People adopt climate change adaptation strategies that best suit their socio-cultural needs and personal circumstances. During an in-depth interview, a male respondent aged 37 years who worked as a Development Practictioner avers,

“Initially, I installed a solar-powered borehole at our homestead as a gesture to my 82 year old father, who is widowed. He does not have the power to carry water buckets from the nearby borehole. Water is scarce in this area. But as time moved, I realised that I could have a small-scale irrigation scheme”.

During FGD, another respondent declared;

“I grow rapoko because every year in our family, we brew beer to appease our ancestors and remember our departed relatives so that their spirits can come back to protect us”. (Community member)

Size of household versus climate change adaptation practices

The adoption of climate change adaptation strategies can better be understood in relation to the demands of labour required to complete the various tasks. On average, households had between 4-6 members, of which twenty-five households adopted all the climate change strategies. Only one household with more than nine members had small-scale irrigation scheme. Figure 5.0 indicates the uptake of climate change adaptation strategies against corresponding household sizes.

Source: Survey Results 2022/23

Figure 5.0: The influence of household size on climate change adoption decisions

Family size is considered when adoption decisions of climate change adaptation strategies are made. Usually, larger households do not hire labour to do their tasks. During FGD, a widower aged 67 years stated;

“I used collective field works to till my land, cultivating and harvesting my crops because I do not have enough labour. We are just two, and my herd boy will take care for the cattle. My children are formally employed in South Africa. This is the only best option”.

The influence of demographic factors on household adoption decisions  

In respect of all the determinants of climate change adaptation practices shown on table 4.3, testing was done at 5% level of significance α. So the H_O was rejected when p < α or accepted it when p > α.

 Table 2.0: Pearson Chi-square tests on the determinants of climate change adaptation

Source: Survey Results 2022/23

On variables of age, the p = 0.048; household income p = 0.031 and household size p = 0.037 respectively. The p (0.048; 0.031; 0.037) < α (0,05); therefore, the research results reject the null hypothesis, since there is statistically significant positive association between the age of households heads, households’ income, size of households and household climate change adaptation practices. On the education status of households heads, p = 0.083 and α value = 005, p (0.083) > α (0.05). Therefore, the research results accept the null hypothesis, since there is no association between the education status of households heads and the adoption of households’ climate change adaptation strategies.

DISCUSSION

The age of the household head determines the choice of adaptation strategies in Matande communal lands in line with earlier studies by Baiyegunhi, (2018); Ali and Erenstein, (2016). Older small-scale farmers in Matande communal lands do crop diversification, small grains cultivation and cattle rearing which were traditionally done. This is expected from them, Beinhocker, (2006) argues that older small-scale farmers suffer from ‘cognitive biases’ which is reluctance to try new methods. Senior citizens adopted pfumvudza because it was simply a government programme and felt that they had a duty to serve government. They could have not adopted it if it was not for the government. They also harness social capital.

Results demonstrate that 79% of the population in Ward 2, Mwenezi district earned below the poverty datum line pegged at US$385 as at September 2022 according to the Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency, (2022). Wealthier families adopt to climate change strategies out of choice and can employ the best or a combination of them (Baiyegunhi, 2018). Poverty among locals triggered mal-adaptation practices. Filho and Nalau, (2018) viewed mal-adaptation practices as unintended negative consequences of climate change adaptation practices. The cutting down of trees for traditional fencing with thorn bushes and poles from indigenous trees in order to protect household gardens, homestead and fields from wild animals and livestock were causing climate change through deforestation, siltation and environmental degradation. Postulations by Ndaki, (2014); Chanza, (2018); Nyahunda and Tirivangasi, (2019); Saliya and Wickrama, (2021); Zakari et al. (2022), indicate that what is needed to be addressed is rural poverty to achieve effective climate adaptation.

In agreement with Ellis, (2000); Atube et al. (2021) and Jaka et al. (2021), the study revealed that large households deploy various climate change adaptation practices and pursued livelihood diversification due to higher availability of labour. Households with few members adopt strategies that complement their labour such as collective field work to accomplish often difficult tasks. Social capital plays a pivotal role for an individual, household, and community as a risk smoothing mechanism providing resilience to climate change (Kasimba, 2018; Chanza, 2015; Nyahunda and Tirivangasi, 2019).  Research results demonstrate that educational level has no effect on the uptake of household climate change adaptation practices. Destaus, (2003) resonates well with the above findings and further indicates that livelihoods and climate change adaptation cannot be affected by education. On the contrary, Mapfumo, (2019) and Fagariba et al. (2019) noted that education has a decisive influence on off farm activities.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The study proposed the following recommendations: –

• The need for capacity building before implementing climate change resilience programmes so that farmers engage with good knowledge if determinants are to influence adaptation practices to become sustainable and adequate to address food shortages.
• Priortisation in the distribution of free agricultural inputs should be targeted at economic active population to increase output. The priortisation of economic inactive groups (geriatrics and disabled households heads) in the distribution of agricultural inputs was found to be negatively affecting the overall crop yields leading to perennial food shortages.
• Government should support innovation by the deployment of adequate resources. Poverty derailed the efforts by the inhabitants of Matande communal lands towards sustainable adaptation, their choices were limited due to resource constrains.

CONCLUSION

The consequences of climate change are not being experienced evenly, and certain individuals are disproportionately affected hence they are multiple determinants of climate change adaptation practices.  The study revealed that household income, age of household head, household size had a statistically positive impact on the adoption of climate change adaptation practices in Matande communal lands. However, the education status of the household head did not have because adoption decisions are affected by the social, cultural and economic circumstances of the household involved. Understanding the determinants of climate change adaptation strategies generated relevant knowledge to avoid singular and vulnerable modalities which only works when things are working well and collapses when some problems occur.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Mwenezi District officials and small scale farmers in Matande communal lands for their reception during field work.

Competing Interests

The authors have declared that no competing interests exists.

Authors’ Contributions

F.M. designed data collection instruments, undertook fieldwork and the writing of the initial draft. J.S analyses quantitative data. C.C edited and reviewed the manuscript whereas A.M pepared the manuscript for publication. C.P.G. supervised data collection and edited the mauscript .

Funding Information

The research was not funded and solely dependent on the authors’ savings.

Data Availability

All data generated and analysed during this study are included in this article.

Disclaimer

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors.

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