Influence of Ethnocentric Culture as a Raiding Motif on Psycho Social Stability of Students in Day Secondary Schools in Baringo County of Kenya.

Influence of Ethnocentric Culture as a Raiding Motif on Psycho Social Stability of Students in Day Secondary Schools in Baringo County of Kenya.

David Kipkorir Kiptui^1*, Charles c. Moindi²

¹Po. Box 193-60215, Marimanti, Kenya.

²Kisii University. Box 408- 40200 Kisii, Kenya

*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.809023

Received: 13 August 2024; Accepted: 26 August 2024; Published: 27 September 2024

ABSTRACT

Ethnocentrism is the evaluation of other people’s cultures based on ones’ skewed standards, customs and beliefs and seeking to assert one’s own inherent superiority and prejudice on others.   Ethnocentrism has been linked to sustained protracted inter- community conflicts.  It has also been the foundation of construction of tribal identities, social isolation, out-group hostilities and creation of inter- social boundaries. The pastoralist communities in Baringo county have had a long history of armed conflicts which revolve around natural resources such as water, land boundaries and pasture. The limited resources, proliferation of small arms, feeling of marginalization and values attached to successful raids has made the situation more complex. The government in an effort to address these conflicts has established more day secondary schools to enhance access to education and reduce the raiding culture among the communities in Baringo County.  However, as much as this is encouraged students in these secondary schools still suffer psychosocial instability emanating from school and home environments. While at home the students are frequently exposed to hostilities from raiding neighboring communities, some have lost their livelihoods, lost their parents and their schools have been closed due to frequent raids and fear of attacks from cattle rustlers and bandits.  They have also been victims of displacement and trauma caused by witnessing incidences of violence and at times death. Therefore, this study sought to establish the influence of ethnocentric culture as a raiding motif on psycho-social stability of students in day secondary schools in Baringo county, Kenya. The study utilized the descriptive survey design. The research was conducted on a sample of 360 students from eighteen sampled day secondary schools. The data collection methods were students’ questionnaire.  To validate the instruments, piloting was conducted on two (2) day secondary schools with similar characteristics to the sampled schools but which were not included in the actual study. Data was analyzed with the aid of a computer programme which is the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21.0 for windows. ANOVA and t-test were used to test if there was a statistically significant mean difference in the students’ response on the influence of ethnocentrism as a raiding motif on psychosocial stability of students in day secondary schools and to determine whether to reject or accept the study hypothesis. All analysis was tested at 0.05 level of significance. The study found out that ethnocentric elements such as the feeling of marginalization, proliferation of small arms, and social praises related to successful raids, helped sustain protracted raiding motif and contributed to students’ psychosocial instability in day secondary schools in Baringo county. The study recommends a more robust inter-community peace sensitization programmes

Keywords: Influence, Ethnocentric Culture, Raiding Motif, Psycho-social Stability, Day Secondary Schools.

INTRODUCTION

Ethnocentrism stems from the philosophy that ones’ way of life is natural, correct and right. It is about cultural dominion which seeks to enforces social change on other cultures. Ethnocentric culture relies on evaluation of other people’s culture based on how it compares to one’s own norms, beliefs and values.  It is about the desire to impose owns cultural values on others due to the belief that other cultures are inferior, savagery, uncivilized and retrogressive. This cultural dominion has become the basis for armed protracted conflicts among pastoral communities in sub-Saharan African countries and the rest of the world (Opiyo et.al. 2021).   This practice has had a significant psychosocial influence on livelihoods causing loss of lives, destruction of property, displacement of population and closure of schools. The race for guns for protection and guns for wealth has led to new gun markets. Cattle raiding have gone commercial and it has seen most students drop out of school to engage in the get rich quickly business and supply wealth business men with livestock in exchange of money, some of these students are driven by the success stories of their peers (Weiss, 2008). Some elders bless the raids because they know they will also get dividends.  Education is no longer a priority, especially in the face of poverty and demand for higher pride price especially among raiding communities in Baringo county (UNHRC 2022). Rituals and praise songs for young men who have successfully raided are so glamorous that it forces those in schools to drop out and engage in the same act. The report further points out that the cycle of violence has been taken up by young warriors who are so armed that their parents can no longer control them. A focus group discussion with a SESAT project coordinator conducted in West Pokot indicate that every circumcision period is linked to violent raids because the young men have to be ready to marry the new initiated prides. Lack of pasture and water for livestock has also been cited as a cause for the violent conflict around Koloa, Tot, Lokori and parts of lower Kerio Valley and Laikipia counties. This violence has seen several students leave school, schools burned and schools closed for good (Kipsang, 2016).

Mayers (2013) in his study of raiding motives among pastoral communities observes that conflict related to livestock raiding are not new phenomenon’s in many pastoral societies. Traditionally, the practice was done basically for restocking of herds, especially after periods of drought or outbreak of diseases. However, in the recent years, livestock raiding has become more frequent, more violent and even destructive. A study on the cattle raiding motif among the Pokots and Turkana of Kenya, Masinde, M (2022) pointed out other motives; the desire to increase wealth, expansion of boundaries, political popularity and payment of dowry. It is also a symbol of prestige and security against drought and calamities. Raided animals provided a regular source of food in terms of milk, meat and blood for households. It was used as compensation for the injured parties during raids and a source of pastoral capital and cash income to buy cereals, education, health care and other services.

Mkutu (2020) observes that currently cattle raiding as taken a different dimension. The proliferation of modern small arms has made raids a commercial venture. Wealth businessmen and politicians have entered the business of raiding for various reasons; the politicians support the practice to gain political mileage and increase their social status as one is considered a traitor if not part of the practice. Wealth businessmen join the trade for quick profits. The communities also fight for perceived territorial rights. They seek to expand grazing lands and gain more access to water points and pasture resources. This was also an observation made by Eaten, (2008). The effect of raiding range from loss of livestock, loss of human lives, food insecurity, closure of schools, closure of markets and has become an obstacle to investments (Singo, 2003).

Masinde (2022) notes that inter- community conflicts and raids have affected community relations. It has led to abduction of women, rape and even forced migrations. The indirect impact is that raids create a strong and omnipresent perception of insecurity which results in ineffective resource utilization, reduced morbidity and forced migrations. These factors combine to cause psychosocial instability of students in day secondary schools.

Baringo County of Kenya is a case in point of a region that suffers developmental and educational neglect, violence from cattle raiding, conflict over pasture, inter-tribal conflict and ethnocentric enormity. The area also suffers from pastoralist poverty with other arid lands such as Wajir, Mandera, Moyale, Laikipia and Samburu. These are factors that combine to cause psychological instability of students in day secondary schools (Were, 1986). The proliferation of small arms is in the increase in this region. In parts of Marakwet, Turkana and Kerio Valley, East and West Pokot, new models of small arms are sold in the markets, the loss of old guns due to disarmament by the government has led to forced “upgrades”; the demand for newer ones and creating refresher market for dealers en-route as far as DRC and Somalia. The Armed Kenya Police Reserves who are civilians and who are unsupervised or paid for their work has worsened the situation. They have been turned into private militia for get rich quick businessmen (Pkalya et.al 2022). The students in day secondary schools in Baringo County are exposed to psychological stress, anxiety and phobia emanating from frequent inter-community conflicts, others are involved in raids and revenge attacks to protect their communities, some witness death of those killed during these conflicts which may become a source of trauma and stress a thing that may affect their psychosocial stability in school (Wango, 2006).

Statement of the problem.

In Baringo County of Kenya, ethnocentricism is associated with resource competition, cattle raiding, widespread availability of small arms and currently political power struggle and desire for territorial expansion (Pkalya, et.al, 2022). The patterns of conflict in the Baringo County are complex and mutually reinforcing. The proliferation of illicit small arms intensified market-oriented cattle raiding practice and diminishing role of traditional governance systems have been blamed for the violence The problem of competition over pasture, control and access to natural resources such as water and pasture, conflicts over land boundaries, political incitements, increasing level of poverty and ethno-centrism are emerging phenomenon which has profound psychosocial effect on families( Cheserek, 2014). despite this clear phenomenon, little has been done to address this persistent challenge and more-so how this ethnocentric behaviour affects day secondary school students. Therefore, this study sought to investigate the influence of ethnocentric cultures on psychosocial stability of day secondary school students in Baringo county, Kenya.

Theoretical Approach

This study was based on two theories: Social Reality Conflict Model and Terror Management Theory. Social Reality Conflict Model was proposed by sheriff (1966) and Campbell (1972)). The theory’s basic principle is that ethnocentrism stems from competition for resources and the desire to control the limited resources such as territorial boundaries, material benefits, limited opportunities and threats for in-groups status quo. Ethnocentric beliefs are as a result of strong identification with one’s own cultural ties that creates a positive view of the in-groups and a negated view of other out-group culture. This therefore become the basis for stereotypes, ethnic hatred, discrimination and hence protracted conflicts. The cause of this culture is learned behaviour embedded in peoples’ beliefs, values and which over years has been enculturated in the systems of interaction and approvals by members of the society.  Terror management theory on the other hand is used to explain cultural prejudices in the society. The theory rests on the belief that one’s culture is more superior than the other. According to the theory, ethnocentrism is caused by intrapsychic threats of mortality and anxiety which the in-groups try to overcome by reasserting their preference for own cultural views over the out-groups’ culture (Greenberg, 2019). The terror management ideology rests on judging other groups on the basis of their ethnic culture and that the ethnic differences are used to define identity of them and us. This creates separatists’ ideology and becomes a basis of cultural aggression on other communities which is a recipe of conflicts.  This ideology of judging others based on one’s ethnic background affect the cultural relations especially in a multi-cultural environment. (Boris 2014). In the conceptual framework, the independent variable is the influence of ethnocentric culture as a raiding motif and the dependent variable is psycho-social stability of students in day secondary schools. The extraneous variables are government policy, age and gender of students.

Figure 1: A Model Showing the Interaction between Ethnocentric Elements and Psychosocial Stability of Students in Day Secondary Schools in Baringo County.

In the conceptual framework, the independent variable is the influence of ethnocentric culture as a raiding motif and the dependent variable is psychosocial stability of day secondary school. When ethnocentric elements are addressed by the institutions in place, then the psychosocial stability and well- being of the students in day schools is enhanced through improved positive attitude, improved self-esteem, reduced stress and anxiety and improved interpersonal relationships. The hypothesis for this study was tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Research Question. What is the t relationship between ethnocentric culture as a raiding motif and   psychosocial stability of students in day secondary schools in Baringo county?

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The study adopted a descriptive survey design. The independent variable was influence of ethno centric culture as a raiding motif while the dependent variable was psycho social stability of students in day secondary schools. The study was conducted in Tiatu and Baringo North sub-counties in Baringo County. The location was chosen because this is an area that suffers frequent cases of ethnocentric elements such as insecurity, conflicts over water and pasture, inter-community conflicts, poverty and cattle raiding; ethnocentric elements that may have an effect on the psychosocial stability of students in day secondary school who constantly interact within these environments.

The study’s population comprised of 6190 Form three students (3070) males and (3120) females, Stratified sampling was used to select 360 students from each of the 18 sampled day secondary schools. Data was collected using a questionnaire; open ended and closed ended questionnaires. Piloting of the questionnaires was done on one randomly sampled sub county which was not included in the actual study in Elgeyo/Marakwet county. The researcher ensured that the area for piloting had similar challenges as those experienced in actual sampled area of study. Validation of the instrument was done prior to piloting. The researcher also constructed items on the instruments based on the objectives of the study, hypothesis and the literature review.

In establishing the reliability of the instruments, Cronbach’ coefficient alpha method was used. The acceptable threshold was 0.70 which is considered sufficient for internal consistency of the questionnaire items (Kathuri & Pals, 1993). In this study, the reliability coefficient of items in the questionnaire was 0.7750. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyse the obtained data. The findings were presented in percentages, frequencies, and tables. Data analysis was performed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 17. 0 for windows.

The objectives of this study were to: i) Determine the Ethnocentric Elements that Sustain Protracted Conflicts in Baringo County of kenya, ii) Establish the Influence of ethnocentrism as a raiding motif on Psychosocial Stability of Day Secondary School Students in Baringo County of Kenya.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results of the study were presented in frequency tables. Means and standard deviation were also calculated for each response. A total of 360 questionnaires were administered to the respondents, but those that were filled correctly and returned were 355. The response rate was therefore 98.8% which was considered adequate for the study.

Table 1. Independent Sample t-test on Influence of Reduced Conflict on Psycho-social Stability of Male and Females Students in Day Secondary Schools

Sample t- test, significant level at 0.05 for all the Variables. St.dev- Means, Standard deviation; Sig. shows Significance

The results in Table 1 reveal that there were some significant mean differences between male students (1.22) and females (1.00) on reduced conflicts and positive students’ attitude towards schooling. The mean difference is statistically significant because the computed t- value (-3.968) is smaller than the critical P- value (0.05). This implies that both genders felt that with reduced conflicts, students’ attitudes towards schooling would be improved.

The findings further reveal that significant mean differences also slightly existed between males (1.333) and females (1.278) on self -esteem. The implication is that both genders felt that with reduced cases of protracted conflicts in Baringo County, students’ self –esteem levels in day secondary schools will be improved. The computed t-value (-5.497) was smaller than the critical P- value (0.05).

On improved academic performance, there also existed a significant mean difference between the Males and the Females at (1.000) and (1.611) respectively. Hence, it can be concluded that both Males and Females felt that increased protracted conflicts affected the academic performance of day secondary school students which has some effect on their psychosocial stability. The computed t- value (-5.332) was smaller than the critical P-value of (0.005).

The findings also reveal that addressing protracted conflicts significantly reduces stress and anxiety levels of students in day secondary schools. There was a significant mean difference between Males (1.000) and Females (1.500). This mean difference is statistically significant because the t -value -3.092 is less than the critical P- value (0.05) hence both male and female students felt that addressing the challenge of ethnocentric culture as a raiding motif will significantly reduce the students stress and anxiety levels, a thing that will subsequently improve their psycho-social well –being.

The findings of this study corroborate with Levy (2001) who observe that certain ethnocentric elements such as scarcity of resources, feeling of marginalization, Proliferation of small arms, poverty and drought -related problems has been linked to protracted conflicts in most parts of the North rift region of kenya and school instability. This may be more pronounced among day schools especially those in Baringo County region where parents find it a challenge to pay school fees because of poverty and constant cases of cattle raiding.

ANOVA Analysis on Sources of Protracted inter -community Conflicts in Baringo County region

In order to analyze the various sources of inter-community conflicts in the region, the student questionnaire was used and one-way ANOVA test was done. Do these sources differ significantly based on gender response? All the analysis was done at 0.05 level of significance.

Table 2 One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the Students Response on the Source of Intercommunity Conflict in Baringo County.

Table 2 shows that the F-ratios for the variables are significant at 0.05 levels which mean that these factors act differently in causing protracted conflicts in Baringo county. In other words, both female and male students concur that the main triggering source for inter community conflicts are: scarcity of resources such as pasture and water (F 0.947); feeling of marginalization (F 6.689); and proliferation of small arms (F 1.843) and glorification of successful raids (F 0.456). The finding suggests that any of these factors can be the cause of protracted conflicts in Baringo County. The higher the F-value the more the variable makes a greater influence (impact) in causing conflicts. Hence, the students observed that the feeling of marginalization is a greater triggering factor than ‘proliferation of small arms. However, the other factors identified included drought -related such as lack of water and pasture and boundary competition. This implies that they cause conflicts merely out of chance. The concept of competition over boundaries and expansionist ideology is an emerging cause of inter -community conflicts in the region, it is a new trend (Mayers 2013) hence students may not have pointed it out in the study. However, the demand for high dowry and presence of small arms has been associated with cattle raiding over ages (Kimenju, 2003, Opiyo, et.al 2021 & Cheserek, et.al 2014).

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of ethnocentric culture as a raiding motif on psychosocial stability of students in day secondary schools in Baringo county.

The study found out that ethnocentric elements that sustain prolonged protracted conflict in Baringo county were: scarcity of resources such as water and pasture, the feeling of marginalization by out-groups, proliferation of small harms and the glorification associated with successful raids.

The findings of the study further revealed that ethnocentric culture as a raiding motif significantly   influenced students’ psychosocial well -being.  Reduced conflicts led to positive students’ attitudes, improved class performances, reduced stress levels and improved self-esteem.

From the findings of the study, statistically significant mean difference was found to exist between the male and the female respondents on the various sources of inter community conflicts. However, both gender observed that the feeling of marginalization was a stronger variable that led to and sustained inter community conflicts. This feeling of marginalization is strongly linked to ethnocentric beliefs which as become the basis of aggression on other communities.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings of the study revealed that ethnocentrism as a raiding motif significantly influenced psycho social well-being of students especially those in day secondary schools in Baringo county. The study therefore recommends that:

1. There is need for various support agencies such as non-governmental organizations and the government of Kenya to address ethnocentric elements that sustain protracted conflicts such as water and lack of pasture by increasing water pans and enhancing irrigation activities around lake Baringo, Lokori and Rugus areas of Baringo County, Kenya
2. The study recommends that a more robust approach on inter-community peace sensitization/ education programmes be rolled out right from primary schools, secondary schools to the community level.

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