Maternal Parenting Style, Emotional Intelligence, and Discipline Character of Preschool Children: A Mediating Role of Socialization Methods

Maternal Parenting Style, Emotional Intelligence, and Discipline Character of Preschool Children: A Mediating Role of Socialization Methods

Dwi Rizky Saputri, Dwi Hastuti^*

Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Faculty of Human Ecology, IPB University, Bogor, Indonesia

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.903SEDU0140

Received: 18 February 2025; Revised: 27 February 2025; Accepted: 04 March 2025; Published: 05 April 2025

ABSTRACT

The development of discipline character needs to be established since an early period. Specifically, in preschool aged where the foundations of character begin to develop. Mother as primary caregiver for children plays a key role that determines the development of discipline on children. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the relationship and influence of parenting styles, socialization methods, and mothers’ emotional intelligence on the discipline character of preschool children. The research method used in this study is quantitative method, with a cross-sectional study design. The research locations were selected purposively, considering that they included both progressive and conventional kindergartens in Bogor City and Bogor Regency, West Java Province, Indonesia. There were 103 mothers with 103 preschool-age children (47 boys and 56 girls) who participated. Self-administered questionnaires was utilized to collect the data of mothers, while for the data of children, interviews were conducted using visual aids, and the questionnaire was filled in by the researcher. This study discovered that authoritative parenting style has a significant and positive relationship with the improvement of discipline character, while the permissive parenting style has a significant negative relationship with the deceleration of discipline character. Meanwhile, there was no significant relationship of mother’s emotional intelligence and discipline character of children discovered in this study. Compositely, well-implemented socialization methods also have a significant relationship with discipline character. The results of path analysis revealed that authoritative parenting style influences discipline character, both directly and indirectly, through socialization method. Socialization method was also found to have a significant positive influence directly on discipline character. Consequently, parents and mother in particular, have a crucial role to develop discipline on children through the application of parenting style and socialization method.

Keywords: Discipline character, Methods of socialization, Mother’s emotional intelligence, Parenting styles, Preschool aged children

INTRODUCTION

Preschool-age children is a crucial period as well as a transition period from preschool education to primary education (Santrock, 2014). During this period, children rapidly evolve, including character development. Children during this period also experience intense and significant behavioral and emotional changes and the foundations of character begin to develop (Ikromovna, 2021). Discipline refers to an individual’s attitude that is orderly, obedient, and compliant with applicable rules, and able to control themselves and their behavior. A discipline child will adhere to various rules and regulations (Sari et al., 2020). Establishing discipline since an early age is critical as it helps children to develop self-control, moral values, and appropriate behavior, thereby allowing them to comprehend the boundaries and consequences of their actions (Kurniasari, 2015). Self-control can help children develop other good character traits, such as independence, responsibility, and courtesy (Farhatilwardah et al., 2019; Sa’diyah, 2017). The importance of discipline arises from the fact of various deviant behaviors that violate discipline norms. Common discipline violations in children include violating school rules, not respecting teachers, not tidying up toys, and so on (Bharadwaj, 2012; Prima & Lestari, 2018; Utami, 2021).

Discipline in children can be influenced by several factors, including parenting, child characteristics, and the child’s learning environment (Gilang et al., 2018). Children are socialized by many people in society, known as socialization agents, including family and school. School is one of the institutions that deals with education and is tasked with instilling character values in children. Progressive schools and conventional schools have different focuses in providing education. Progressive schools focus on developing children’s character with the aim of fostering positive attitudes and behaviors. On the other hand, conventional schools tend to focus on formal education, emphasizing academics and the implementation of a set curriculum (Hidayat, 2012). These different focuses allow for different approaches in learning and differences in the socialization of character values to children.

The character of discipline can be formed through proper guidance, habituation, and parenting (Aziz, 2019; Hapsari et al., 2019; Hidayati et al., 2022). Parenting styles are classified into three types: authoritarian, permissive, authoritative (Baumrind, 1971). Authoritarian parenting tends to require children to obey and follow all the rules set by the parents (Rahmawati et al., 2022). Children of authoritarian parents often experience unhappiness, fear, and anxiety due to comparing themselves with others, and tend to have poor communication skills. Permissive parenting is a style in which parents strive to be non-punitive and accepting of their children’s desires and actions (Auliya et al., 2021). Authoritative parenting, on the other hand, is a style in which parents seek to guide their children’s activities in a rational and problem-oriented manner. Parents with a authoritative parenting style encourage verbal give-and-take, share with their children the reasons behind their policies, and solicit their objections when they refuse to conform. Children of authoritative parents tend to be cheerful, self-controlled, independent, achievement-oriented, and capable of handling stress well (Ratnawati et al., 2022).

Family characteristics encompass various structural and functional aspects that influence parenting and child development. These include parental roles, parents’ age, educational background, employment status, socio-economic status, and family size. Parents have the most dominant role in children’s socialization process (Grusec & Hastings, 2014). Parents, especially mothers as primary caregivers, act as socialization agents who interact with children to teach moral values (Berns, 2010). In this study, fathers and siblings were omitted due to the focus on maternal parenting styles and their direct impact on child development. Additionally, their exclusion was based on methodological considerations to ensure consistency in data collection, as the study relied on responses from mothers, the primary caregivers, who typically spend the most time with preschool-aged children.

Family has two irreducible functions, namely the socialization so that children effectively become part of society and the formation of a consistent personality in adults in the population of society (Parsons et al., 1956). The methods of parental socialization plays a pivotal role in shaping children’s character, behavior, and attitudes. However, there are still parents who enforce power through punishment to discipline their children. Parental emotional intelligence directly influences how parents raise their children (Batool & Bond, 2015). Parents’ ability to manage their emotions affects their decision-making, conflict resolution, and guidance of their children. Parents with higher emotional intelligence are better able to monitor and regulate their emotions. Parents who have adequate emotional intelligence will create safe and functional relationships within the family environment (Ioannidou & Konstantikaki, 2008). A Family with positive emotional environment tends to encourage parents to explore alternative discipline methods that better suit their children’s needs.

Therefore, it is important for parents with preschool-aged children to build a strong foundation for character development by having good emotional intelligence and appropriate parenting. Based on this background, the objectives of this research are: (1) to identify family characteristics, child characteristics, parenting styles, socialization methods, mother’s emotional intelligence, and discipline character; (2) to analyze differences in parenting styles, methods of socialization, mother’s emotional intelligence, and discipline character based on the type of school; (3) to analyze the relationship between family characteristics, child characteristics, parenting styles, methods of socialization, mother’s emotional intelligence, and discipline character; and (4) to analyze the influence of parenting styles, methods of socialization, and mother’s emotional intelligence on discipline character

METHOD

This type of research is quantitative with a cross-sectional study design. The research locations were four kindergartens (TK) that were purposively choosen based on the consideration that the locations consist of both progressive and conventional kindergartens in the City and Regency of Bogor. The selected schools are those with an ‘A’ (extraordinary) accreditation that are willing to be observed. The research was conducted from March to May 2024. This research is part of the Research Fundamental (Ri-Fund) research entitled “The Role of Family and School and their Partnership in Building the Character and Resilience of Preschool Children in Bogor City and Regency” and has received ethical clearance from the Research Ethics Commission involving Human Subjects of Bogor Agricultural University with number 1245/IT3.KEPMSM-IPB/SK/2024 dated April 30, 2024.

Population of this research were families with preschool-aged children. Sample collection was conducted using non-probability sampling with purposive sampling. The characteristics of the respondents are mothers as the primary caregivers with preschool-aged children aged 4-6 years who attend progressive and conventional kindergartens and reside in the research locations. The type of data collected is primary data. Data collection technique mothers used self-administered questionnaires, while for the children, interviews were conducted using visual aids, and the questionnaire was filled in by the researcher. The total sample for the study comprises of 103 mothers and 103 children, consisting of 47 boys and 56 girls.

Socialization methods was measured using a research questionnaire developed by previous study based on Berns’ socialization methods theory (Berns, 2010) and modified by the researcher value of 0.83. The instrument to asses other’s emotional intelligence was an emotional intelligence instrument developed by the researcher based on Goleman’s emotional intelligence theory (Goleman, 1996) with a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.89. Meanwhile, maternal parenting style was measured using an instrument adapted from previous study (Pasaribu et al., 2013) and modified by the researchers, with a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.69 for the authoritarian parenting style questionnaire; 0.86 for the permissive parenting style questionnaire; and 0.87 for the authoritative parenting style questionnaire. The variable of discipline character was calculated using a questionnaire based on 9-character pillars (Hastuti, 2006) and modified by the researcher, with a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.73.

The data analysis of the research includes descriptive analysis, difference tests, and correlation tests, processed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) program. Furthermore, Smart Partial Least Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was used for analyzing the direct and indirect influences between parenting styles, socialization methods, mother’s emotional intelligence, and discipline character. The criteria in SEM analysis include the measurement model (outer model), which is tested through validity and composite reliability, as well as the structural model (inner model), which is evaluated using the R-squared test and the path coefficient estimation test.All variables used a cut-off rating scale of low (<60.00), medium (60.00-80.00), and high (>80.00).

RESULTS

Child and Family Characteristics

The results (Table 1) indicate that most child respondents are 5 years old (53.4%). The child respondents are preschool children aged 4 to 6 years, with an average age of 5.3 years. Girls respondents in both progressive and conventional school, comprising 54.4%, while boys make up to 45.6%.

Mothers’ ages range from 28 to 52 years. Majority of mothers categorized as early adulthood (87.4%). Furthermore, more than half of mothers (63.1%) completed higher education with  90.6% mothers in progressive school achieved up to higher education, while mothers in conventional school (42%) just completed up to high school or equivalent. The study found that most mothers (51.5%) are not working, while the remaining mothers (48.5%) are employed. Based on family income, nearly half of family’s income (45.6%) are in the range of Rp5,000,000–Rp10,000,000 per month. Other findings also illustrate that more than half of families (67%) were classified into small family category.

Table 1. Percentage of child and family characteristics based on school type

Descriptive Analysis of Studied Variables

The results (Table 2) discovered no significant differences in mother’s parenting style based on school type (p-value>0.05). Overall, mothers in both progressive and conventional schools tend to apply an authoritative parenting style (94.2%). However, the average index of authoritative parenting style for mothers in progressive schools (84.49±12.95) is higher than mothers in conventional schools (82.06±10.97). It is also known that socialization’methods in both school type was not significantly different (p-value>0.05). For affective and apprenticeship socialization methods, most mothers were  identified into high category and for the rest methods were most clasified in medium category. Emotional intelligence of mothers in progressive and conventional school were quite similar (p-value>0.05). However, mothers in progressive schools (77.24±9.52) were more emotionally intelligent compared to mothers in conventional schools (72.90±11.47). Half of mothers (63.1%) in both types of schools have emotional intelligence in the medium category. Despite there was no significant difference in discipline character (p-value=0.05), children in progressive school (82.75±10.26) were more discipline that children in conventional school (78.90±11.68). This research also proved that only nearly half of children were categorized to have discipline character in medium (46.6%) to high category (45.6%).

Table 2. Distribution of parenting style categories, socialization method, mother’s emotional intelligence, and discipline character based on school type

Corelation Analysis of Studied Variables

The results of correlation test in Table 3 show a significant negative relationship between mother’s education (r = -0.418; p <0.01), mother’s employment status (r = -0.218; p<0.05), and family income (r = -0.201; p<0.05) and authoritarian parenting style. This means mothers who are not working have a higher tendency to use an authoritarian parenting style. On the other hand, the higher mother’s education and family income, the lower the authoritarian parenting style applied by the mother. Furthermore, it also discovered significant positive relationship between child’s gender and discipline character (r = 0.269; p<0.01). This indicates a difference in discipline character based on the child’s gender, where in this study, girls have a higher discipline character compared to boys.

Table 3. Correlation coefficients of child characteristics, family characteristics, parenting style, socialization method, mother’s emotional intelligence, and discipline character

Description: **significant at p ≤ 0.01 *significant at p ≤ 0.05; 1=authoritarian parenting style, 2=permissive parenting style, 3=authoritative parenting style, 4=affective socialization method, 5=operant socialization method, 6=observational socialization method, 7=cognitive socialization method, 8=sociocultural socialization method, 9=apprenticeship socialization method, 10=composite methods of socialization, 11=discipline character

The higher level of mother’s emotional intelligence (Table 4) was positive and  significantly related to the increasing level of authoritative parenting style (r=0.232; p<0.01). Other findings revealed that permissive parenting style was negative and significantly corelated to decrease the quality of socialization methods (r=-0.508; p<0.01) and discipline character (r=-0.445; p<0.01). Meanwhile, the optimum implementation of authoritative parenting style was positive and significantly related to improve socialization methods (r=0.519; p<0.01) and children’s discipline character (r=0.258; p<0.01). In addition, socialization methods have a quite significant positive relationship with discipline character (r=0.613; p<0.01). Particularly, affective (r=0.616; p<0.01), observational (r=0.546; p<0.01), cognitive (r=0.501; p<0.01), and accompaniment methods (r=0.421; p<0.01) were positive and significantly related to discipline character. Based on these results, it means well applied of those socialization methods will optimally established discipline character in children. Whereas, operant and sociocultural methods have no significant relationship with child’s discipline character.

Table 4. The correlation coefficient values between parenting styles, methods of socialization, the mother’s emotional intelligence, and discipline character

Note: **significance at p ≤ 0.01 *significance at p ≤ 0.05

Factors Contributes to Discipline Character

Measurement model analysis (outer model) was conducted to assess the validity and reliability of the model. Validity tests have requirements that must be met, namely outer loading value >0.5 and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) value >0.5. Meanwhile, reliability tests have requirements, namely cronbach’s alpha value >0.6 and composite reliability value >0.7. The SEM model in this study can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Model of the influence of parenting style, methods of socialization, mother’s emotional intelligence, and discipline character

Table 5 shows that the Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability of all variables are >0.7. However, most variables have an Average Variance Extracted (AVE) value <0.5, except for the authoritative parenting style variable. On the assumption that the cronbach’s alpha value is <0.6 and AVE is <0.5, it can still be accepted if the composite reliability value is >0.6 (Lam et al., 2012). Therefore, the SEM model is declared valid.

Table 5. Average variance extracted, composite reliability, and cronbach’s alpha of the model influencing parenting style, methods of socialization, and mother’s emotional intelligence on discipline character

The structural model evaluation (inner model) was conducted by reviewing the r-square value of each endogenous variable to assess the strength of the structural model. The r-square value is divided into three categories, namely a value of 0.67 indicates a strong model (Chin, 1998), a value of 0.33 indicates a moderate model, and a value of 0.19 indicates a weak model. The R-square value of the structural model in this study can be seen in Table 6.

Table 6. R-squre model structural

The results of the model test in this study have a Goodness of Fit (GoF) value of 0.46. Goodness of Fit (GoF) value is divided into three categories, namely 0.1 (low GoF), 0.25 (medium GoF), and 0.36 (high GoF) (Wetzels et al., 2009). This indicates that the GoF value is in the high category, which means the structural model has a high level of fit. Goodness of Fit (GoF) is calculated using the following formula (Tenenhaus et al., 2005):

GoF = √(AVE) x √R^2

 = √0.471 x √0.435

 = 0.453

The results of the model test can be viewed in Table 7. The results revealed that socialization methods directly have a significant positive influence on the child’s discipline character (t>1.96; p<0.01). The better methods of socialization applied by the mother, the better the child’s discipline character. Other findings show that the authoritative parenting style directly (t>1.96; p<0.05) and indirectly (t>1.96; p<0.01) influences the child’s discipline character through methods of socialization.

Table 7. Influence of parenting style, methods of socialization, and mother’s emotional intelligence on discipline character

DISCUSSION

Discipline character relates to child’s ability to self-regulate, follow rules, and exhibit appropriate behavior in various situations. Several factors can influence the development of child’s character, including parenting styles and parental methods of socialization (Ayub, 2022; Lesmana & Deliati, 2022; Mulyanti et al., 2021). Family is the first environment that plays an important role in the development of a child’s character. Through family education, children learn principles, moral values, and social norms.

Parenting can be influenced by various factors, one of which is mother’s emotional intelligence (Batool & Bond, 2015). Emotional intelligence is defined as an individual’s ability to manage their emotions (Law et al., 2004). Parents who have good emotional intelligence can create safe and functional relationships within family environment (Ioannidou & Konstantikaki, 2008). Accordingly, a positive emotional environment will be created in the family that will encourage parents to explore disciplinary alternatives that are more suitable for children’s needs (Fletcher et al., 2008). However, this study revealed that the mother’s emotional intelligence does not affect child’s discipline character. This outcome may be attributed to the complex interplay of multiple factors that influence parenting beyond mother’s emotional intelligence. Parenting is influenced by various factors that can affect how parents educate their children, such as family characteristics, socioeconomic factors, social support, cultural norms and values, or mother’s knowledge of parenting (Baumrind, 1971; Morawska et al., 2009; Naziah et al., 2023; Pasaribu et al., 2013). These factors can be resources that support mother’s parenting style regardless of  mother’s emotional intelligence. One possible explanation for this finding is that external factors, such as financial stability and access to parenting resources, may have a stronger influence on disciplinary approaches than emotional intelligence alone. For instance, mothers in higher socioeconomic often have access to parenting education, expert guidance, and structured environments that promote positive discipline strategies, regardless of their emotional intelligence levels. Additionally, a mother’s knowledge of parenting strategies and child development can have a greater impact on discipline than mother’s emotional intelligence. Without awareness of effective techniques like positive reinforcement, even emotionally intelligent mothers may struggle to apply their skills in shaping discipline. Conversely, mothers with lower emotional intelligence but strong parenting knowledge may implement structured and consistent disciplinary approaches more effectively.

The study found no significant difference between parenting styles of mothers in progressive schools and conventional schools. However, the difference observed is that mothers in progressive schools tend to apply a higher authoritative parenting style. This can be explained by several factors that affect parenting, one of them is family characteristics. Descriptively, mother’s education level and family income in progressive schools are higher than in conventional schools. Previous research shows that higher parental education is associated with a better understanding of parenting, which contributes to parenting practices and child development (Ayub, 2022; Elmanora et al., 2012; Monks et al., 1999; Winter et al., 2012). Moreover, higher family income allows access to various resources that can support parental upbringing (Davis-Kean, 2005; Naziah et al., 2023).

There are three parenting styles: authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative (Baumrind, 1971). Different parenting styles can have different effects on a child’s development, including character (Park, 2004). In this study, almost all  mothers reported that they tend to apply an authoritative parenting style to their children and only several mothers were permissive parenting style. The study results show that both permissive and authoritative parenting styles have a significant relationship with discipline character. The authoritative parenting style is positive and significantly related to child’s discipline character, meaning that the more authoritative the parenting style, the higher the child’s discipline character. Meanwhile, the permissive parenting style is negative and significantly related to child’s discipline character. It conveys that the more permissive the parenting style, the lower the child’s discipline character is. These findings align with previous research (Baumrind, 1991) who stated that the authoritative parenting style positively contributes to child’s character development. Morovers, methods of socialization were found to have a significant positive relationship with  child’s discipline character, which can be indicated that the more consistent the mother applies various methods of socialization, the better the child’s discipline character will be.

This study found that the mother’s authoritative parenting style positive and significantly affects the child’s discipline character. The authoritative parenting style combines high parental warmth and control, meaning that parents apply firm and consistent control and discipline while providing the necessary warmth and affection (Lamborn et al., 1991). Parents can discipline children by providing direction with love, emphasizing boundaries, and helping children understand the consequences of their actions (Hoffman, 1970). Parents with an authoritative parenting style set rules while providing explanations about the reasons behind the rules and their relationship to moral values (Leman, 2005). Children are more likely to adopt behaviors and values when parents use reasoning and explanation (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994). By understanding the explanations and reasons behind the rules, children tend to obey the rules because they understand the reasons behind the prevailing rules around them.

The study also found that authoritative parenting style indirectly affects child’s discipline character through methods of socialization. Compositely, socialization methods are also found to have a direct influence on child’s discipline character. Parental methods of socialization are how parents socialize knowledge, skills, and character values to children. Those are interconnected and often work together to influence the holistic development of children. In this socialization process, internalization occurs within the child, which means that behaviors initially controlled by external factors become behaviors internally controlled by the child (Berns, 2010). It means increasing level of mother’s parenting style will influence the improvement of how mother socializing values, norms, and good behavior to the child, thus improving the child’s discipline character. For parents to effectively internalize values in their children, it is essential to cultivate a close and harmonious family environment (Barni et al., 2011).

Socialization methods include affective, operant, observational, cognitive, sociocultural, and apprenticeship. Affective socialization methods were found to have a significant positive relationship with children’s discipline character. It takes place because the affective context of the relationship may influence children’s motivation to listen to and respond to parents (Smetana, 1999), so that the behavior that arises comes from feelings that arise as a result of the interaction between parents and children (Berns, 2010). Furthermore, the observation socialization method has a significant positive effect on children’s discipline character, which can be signified that the more mothers socialize character values by being role models for children, the higher the children’s disciplinary character. Albert Bandura showed through his various studies on observational learning that children will easily imitate complex behavior patterns from observed models (Marantz, 1988).

Besides family, schools also play an important role in shaping a child’s character (Lickona, 1991). Schools are one of the socialization agents (Berns, 2010). The results show no significant difference between discipline character of children attending progressive and conventional schools. Generally, children’s discipline character is mostly in the moderate category. While the results show no statistically significant difference in the discipline character of children attending progressive and conventional schools, it is noteworthy that children in progressive schools were reported to be more disciplined. These differences can be attributed to various factors, such as curriculum, teaching methods, and school regulations (Berns, 2010). These differing school approaches can be one of the factors influencing the different impacts on children’s character development (Maisyaroh et al., 2023; Suciati et al., 2023). School environments that emphasize student autonomy, critical thinking, and structured yet flexible discipline strategies may foster a more consistent internalization of discipline. Additionally, factors such as teacher-student relationships, parental involvement, and reinforcement of behavioral expectations at home could also contribute to these observed differences. Moreover, the correlation test results between child characteristics and children’s discipline character desribed that there is a significant relationship between child’s sex and discipline character. In this study, it was found that girls have a higher discipline character than boys. This finding is in line with previous research which found that positive behaviors or attitudes such as obedience to rules, following instructions, and maintaining cleanliness and order, tend to be found more often in girls than boys (DeZolt & Hull, 2001; Eisenberg et al., 2013; Orr, 2011).

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGESTIONS

The results indicate that the average age of children in this study is 5.3 years, with more than half respondent are girls. The majority of mothers are in the early adulthood category, most of mothers have completed higher education, and the majority are not employed. Family income predominantly falls within the range of Rp5,000,000-Rp10,000,000. Mothers tend to adopt an authoritative parenting style, apply socialization methods in moderate level across all types, and have emotional intelligence generally defined as moderate. Morover, children’s discipline character is also in the moderate category. Parenting style, socialization methods, mothers’ emotional intelligence, and child’s discipline in both school were similar enough. The higher the family income was discovered related to authoritative parenting style adopt by mothers. Additionally, child’s sex was found to have a significant relationship with discipline character, with girls were more discipline than boys. Mother with adequate emotional intelligence are more likely she is to apply authoritative parenting style, accelerate socialization methods quality, and increase discipline character on children. Proper implementation of authoritative parenting style and consistently applied of socialization  methods corelate to good establishment of  child’s discipline. Conversely, a permissive parenting style  will significantly decrease child’s discipline character. Socialization methods by mothers have a direct influence on discipline character. Additionally, authoritative parenting was found to influence discipline character both directly and indirectly through methods of socialization. These findings suggest that an authoritative parenting style can enhance the effectiveness of various methods of socialization applied by mothers, which in turn improves the child’s discipline character.

The study’s results show that the mother’s methods of socialization and authoritative parenting style positively affect the child’s discipline character. Based on these results, parents are expected to apply various methods of socialization and authoritative parenting styles to optimize the development of the child’s discipline character. Parents can socialize character values to children using various methods of socialization warmly but firmly, such as building strong and secure bonds, setting examples, establishing standards, providing positive reinforcement, giving negative reinforcement (punishment) when children do not meet the standards, explaining rules, and guiding children’s activities. Meanwhile, for schools as one of the socialization agents, it is also expected to pay more attention to character values socialization in the learning process by creating a learning environment that can optimize children’s character development. To gain a deeper understanding of how discipline develops over time, future research should adopt a longitudinal approach to monitor behavioral changes. Additionally, involving fathers and broader family dynamics could provide a more comprehensive picture of how disciplinary values are reinforced both at home and in school. Expanding the scope of research by examining other variables related to children’s character development, such as a child’s internal factors, school environment, and peer groups, would further enhance understanding of the complex influences shaping discipline.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We extend our sincere gratitude to IPB University for their financial support of this research project, as specified in Decree Letter Number: 419 Year 2023 dated November 27, 2023, and Agreement/Contract Number: 430/IT3.D10/PT.01.03/P/B/2024. We also wish to acknowledge the Bogor Health Office, the Subdistrict, Village, Community Health Workers, Public Health Centers (Puskesmas), Integrated Service Posts (Posyandu), and enumerators for their invaluable support and collaboration. Additionally, we express our deep appreciation to all contributors and participants who graciously dedicated their time and effort to this study.

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