Multi-Intelligence (MI) Utilized by Sports Coordinators in Managing Events

Multi-Intelligence (MI) Utilized by Sports Coordinators in Managing Events

Mark Louie S. Madarang¹, Anicia S. Madarang²

^1,2Mabini Colleges, Incorporated, Daet, Camarines Norte

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90300021

Received: 17 February 2025; Accepted: 24 February 2025; Published: 26 March 2025

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to determine the multi-intelligence (MI) utilized by the sports coordinators in Labo West District, Division of Camarines Norte in managing sports events. The respondents were the 64 school sports coordinators from 20 public elementary schools, selected through total enumeration. Using a descriptive-correlational design, the study determined the profile of the respondents, the types of multi-intelligence possessed, the challenges encountered, and relationship between the profile and multiple intelligence. Results showed that respondents were predominantly young adult, married, still new in sports coaching; the number of male and female sports coordinators is almost equal; and mostly handled one sports event,the multiple intelligences mostly possessed by the respondents is kinesthetics, while the least were musical, naturalistic and verbal. The profile was found not significantly associated of their multiple intelligence. Challenges encountered include inaccessible/unavailable instructional materials and insufficient knowledge and skills in line with the sports they are handling.   The proposed intervention was the SCORE program (Sports Coordinators and Coaches for Optimal Resource Engagement) Recommendations included pursuing graduate studies, partnering with stakeholders, and applying diverse coaching approaches.

Keywords: Sports Coordinators, multi-intelligence, managing sports events, utilized, challenges

INTRODUCTION

In the contemporary educational landscape, the role of teachers extends far beyond traditional imparting of knowledge. Today, teachers are expected to be facilitators of learning, mentors, and even counselors, catering to diverse learning styles and individual differences among students. This evolving role demands teachers to possess a wide array of skills beyond subject matter expertise. Hence, the enhancement of teacher’s skills has become a focal point in educational discourse (Taole, 2020). Accordingly, teachers should possess multi-intelligence which is as multi-potential and entails the ability to adapt in some conditions and problems especially in handling students (Yang et al., 2018). Under The MATATAG Curriculum Guide for Grades 4 and 7 (2023) the MAPEH programs were reviewed and found out that almost fifty percent (50%) of the component learning competencies (LCs) have implicit skills which elucidated that not all the prerequisite skills were taught as necessary. Currently the Division of Camarines Norte through the MAPEH department requires all schools to have coordinators in each 6 component areas: dance sports, athletics, ballgames, swimming, racket games, and board games. This study aimed to determine the multiple intelligence possessed by school sports coordinators in managing sports events.

METHODOLOGY

The study employed a quantitative research design using descriptive-correlational method. Data were collected using an adapted questionnaire from McClellan and Conti (2008) from the 64 respondents from the twenty public elementary schools in Labo West District chosen through total enumeration.   Descriptive statistics was applied to gather information on the respondents’ profile, types of multi-intelligence possessed, and the challenges encountered in managing sports events. Contingency Coefficient C was employed in determining the significant relationship between the profile and multiple intelligence utilized by the respondents.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Profile of the respondents.

The study revealed a diverse profile across age, sex, civil status, educational attainment , length of service as sports coordinator, and events manage by sports coordinators.

Age. The study revealed that 28 respondents or 43.75 %, were between the ages of 31 and 40, while six respondents, or 9.37 %, were 51 years of age or older. This suggests that young adults make up the majority of the designated Sports Coordinators in Labo West District. The sports coordinators’ age can impact them in three ways: their decision-making abilities, communication skills with players and school officials, and physical capabilities. When it comes to team management, training schedule planning, and administrative problems, elder sports coordinators typically have more experience than their younger counterparts. However, they lack the physical stamina needed for sports directors to demonstrate techniques and warm-up exercises at all events, therefore they prioritize preparation above physical stamina. Tanaka and Seals (2019) conformed to these findings, wherein they cited that the peak levels at age 35-40, physiological functional capacity decreases linearly until approximately 70-80 years of age and where upon the decline becomes exponential.

Sex. There are 35 men (54.69%) who compose the majority of sports coordinators, compared to 29 women (45.31%). The findings indicate that women are now assigned to sports coordinating positions and are no longer underrepresented in this field. Because sports involve strength and force, it is no longer relevant that they are typically thought of as a men’s domain.The results of this study were supported by Kuntz and Moorfield (2024), who underlined that a lot of sports organizations increasingly prioritize inclusive recruiting procedures because there is evidence that mixed-gender leadership teams improve morale and performance of athletes.

Civil Status. The study revealed that  only 13 (20.31%) of the sports coordinators are single, while 51 (79.69%) are married. Married coordinators typically struggle to strike a balance between their responsibilities to their families and their jobs. Single coordinators, on the other hand, are more available and flexible at work since they prioritize their work over family matters. In leadership positions, married coordinators might win respect and trust because they are seen as more steady or settled. However, single coordinators might have fewer family-based social responsibilities, which would free them up to actively engage in team-related social gatherings and establish rapport in various ways. Esguerra (2019) supported these findings by pointing out that most single athlete-coaches prioritized their studies over real sports activity.

Educational Attainment. The study found that, 32 (50%) have earned a Bachelor of Elementary Education (BEEd) degree, 24 (37.5%) have earned a Master’s degree, six (9.37%) have earned a Master’s degree, and two (3.13%) have earned a doctorate. However, no one completed their doctorate. The findings suggest that the majority of sports coordinators strive for professional growth. This was made feasible by the fact that the majority of them were enrolled in postgraduate programs offered by two Camarines Norte colleges. These conclusions were supported by Salonga (2022) and Afandi (2023). According to the former, obtaining a postgraduate degree might be a crucial step toward future success and professional development. Length of Service. The majority of sports coordinators, 32, or 50% have been in the position for four to six years, while five respondents, or 7.81 percent, have been in the position for ten years or more. The majority of the coaches are still relatively new to coaching sports, according to the data. Some rewards for becoming a school sports coordinator encouraged them to keep up their efforts.However, their age does not warrant. Tanaka and Seals (2003) corroborated the results of this study by pointing out that performance gradually deteriorates with age, beginning with peak levels attained in early adulthood.

Table 1 Respondents’ Profile

Number of Sports Events being Managed by School Sports Coordinator. According to the results, 47 (73.44) of the 64 respondents are managing a single event, followed by 13 (40.41%) who are managing two events, and 4 (6.25%) who are managing three sporting events. This indicates that more sports coordinators concentrated on a single event, primarily in athletics. The findings were supported by Greenwell et al. (2023), who mentioned the benefits of managing a single event. These include more stakeholder communication, less complexity, less stress, greater quality control, and targeted planning. However, there are also documented drawbacks, such as lost chances, insufficient expertise, the possibility of over-investing in a single development, and resource inefficiency.

Multi-intelligence Possessed by Sports Coordinators.The sports coordinators who apply a multi-intelligence (MI) approach can profound impact on their athletes participating in varied sports.

Bodily/ Kinesthetic Multiple Intelligence. Indicator numbers 1,10, and 19 got the lowest sum of ranks of 128,162, and 170 respectively, which all pertain to bodily/kinesthetics intelligence based on the MIs scoresheet, interpreted as most preferred MI area. Accordingly, kinesthetic/bodily intelligence refers to the ability to manipulate objects and utilize   variety of physical intelligence (Gardner, 1983).  Engaging in activities that involve movement can be an effective way to enhance memory formation specifically in coaching sports, wherein the body needs to be coordinated and in controlled manner.

Table 1Multiple Intelligence   Possessed by Sports Coordinators Along Bodily/ Kinesthetic

Existential  multiple Intelligence. A person with existential multiple intelligences is extremely sensitive, capable of handling deep problems, such as the meaning of existence, and actively seeks out solutions to any concerns (Anglia, 2022). The results of the MIs that sports coordinators possess along existential multiple intelligences are displayed in Table 3. Indicator number 11 had the highest sum of rank (297), which is the least, while indicator number 20 received the lowest sum of rank (261), which is the most preferred MI. These results can be explained by the tendency of sports coordinators to concentrate on action-oriented tasks, such as planning events and training athletes, which are more kinesthetic in nature than meditation exercises, introspection, or dealing with questions about life’s meaning. These results were corroborated by Aminal and Boutalbi (2020) wherein they determined the multi-intelligence among selected high school sports and physical education teachers and found that social intelligence ranked first, followed by bodily-kinesthetics while existential ranked fifth.

Table 3Multiple Intelligence   Possessed by Sports   Coordinators Along Existential

Interpersonal Multi Intelligence. This is the ability to effectively understand and communicate with others both orally and non-verbally, identifying individual differences, being perceptive of the emotions and temperaments of others, and being receptive to diverse viewpoints (Armstrong,2009).Table 4 shows that indicator number 20 received the lowest sum of rank (261) out of the three, while indicator number 11came in third (297). These results can be explained by the fact that school sports coordinators are goal-oriented, constantly considering how to win and succeed in their events, and eager to share their methods with colleagues, particularly during sports clinics and competitions,they tend to take the lead in sporting activities and are thoughtful, analytical thinkers with a sense of adaptability. When overseeing sporting activities, they rarely take personal interests into account and always behave as a team player. These findings were in line with  Gardner, H (1983) assertion  that interpersonal

Table 4 Multiple Intelligence Possessed by Sports Coordinators Along Interpersonal

intelligence facilitates teamwork among individuals. Persons with this multi intelligence are able to solve difficulties creatively and dissect issues into its components in order to come up with a   comprehensive  analysis.

Intrapersonal Multiple Intelligence. This multi intelligence includes knowledge of oneself and the human condition (Gardner H, 1983). Table 5  shows  that indicator 4 ranks highest with a sum of rank of 279, the most possessed MI, while indicator 13 ranks lowest with a sum of rank of 284. This is explained by the sports organizers’ dedication to the principle of fairness in order to maintain integrity, with little regard for individual motives. Additionally, it fosters the value of sportsmanship and maintains the legitimacy of the events they are overseeing. Further, it upholds the credibility of the events they are managing and   inculcate the value of sportsmanship. The findings of this study were consistent with those of Kaya et al. (2023), who found that metacognitive awareness and intrapersonal intelligence—a key predictor of the latter—had a positive and significant correlation.

Table 5  Multiple Intelligence  Possessed by Sports Coordinators Along   Intrapersonal

Logical Multi-intelligence.This  includes the following skills: scientific study, problem solving, logical analysis, and the ability to solve mathematical and logical operations with ease (Gardner, 1983). Table 6  reveals that indicator number 5 has the lowest sum of rank (307) and is ranked first, while indicator number 14 has the highest sum of rank (334), and is ranked third. This indicates that the former is the most preferred or possesses MI by the respondents, while the latter is the least. This suggested that the sports coordinators follow game plans, research opponent strategies, and are strategic planners. As a result, they like to operate in organized teams. The results of Bracero-Malagón et al. (2019) corroborated the study, wherein they stated that the development of logical-mathematical intelligence and mathematical abilities will be supported by the expansion of cognitive functions such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, and sustained attention. They have shown that beneficial changes in gray and white matter volumes in cortical and subcortical regions are promoted by physical activity and better physical health.

Table 6 Multiple Intelligence Possessed by Sports Coordinators Along Logic 

Musical multi-intelligence. The ability to recognize tone, timbre, rhythm, and pitch is known as musical intelligence. It allows people to perceive, generate, reproduce, and contemplate music (Armstrong, 2009). Table No 7 shows that Indicator number six, has the least sum of rank which  MI that the sports coordinators possessed the most, received the lowest sum of rank (356), while indicator number 15 (374)is the least . Furthermore, music is utilized to motivate student athletes and create a vibrant environment, however, not all sports coordinators possess musical ability . Zayed et al. (2023) corroborated these findings by pointing out that Oman’s athletes and non-athletes had low musical intelligence in comparison to their Islamic culture, which forbids modern music for religious reasons.

Table 7 Multiple Intelligence Possessed by Sports Coordinators Along Musical

 Naturalistic Multiple Intelligence.  This is the capacity to identify, observe, categorize, understand, and interact with natural elements, including plants, animals, and the environment. People with high naturalistic intelligence are drawn to researching, studying, and taking care of the environment and other creatures. They also have a reputation for being sensitive to even the slightest changes in their environment, which helps them spot patterns and make connections with the natural world (Maybright Wheel, 2023). Table 9 demonstrates that, while indicator number 16 (421) has the most replies and is viewed as having the least MI, indicator number 7 has the lowest sum of rank (356), indicating the most naturalistic intelligence.

Table 8 Multiple Intelligence Possessed by Sports Coordinators Along Naturalistic

 These findings can be attributed to the sports coordinators initiatives in conducting outdoor activities like hiking, outdoor- exercises, while ensuring that environment cleanliness is maintained all throughout  these activities. Oftentimes, they schedule outdoor activities, based on weather conditions but adjust training sessions depending on environmental conditions prioritizing athletes safety. Relative to this, having pets is not their priority. These findings was in contrast  with Gardner (1983) wherein he cited that  children with naturalistic intelligence love to take care of plants and  domestic  animals.

Visual-spatial.  This  includes the perception, analysis, understanding, storing, and recall of visual information. People frequently use visual-spatial skills in their daily lives because it allows them to view, create, and work with items and themselves in space. Typical examples of children using visual-spatial intelligence include learning to catch a ball, identifying colors, drawing shapes, and imagining where a toy is before acquiring it (brightwheel.com 2024). Table 9 shows  that indicator number 18, which is considered as the most desired MI along visual, has the lowest total of rank of 320. On the other hand, indicator number 27 has the lowest MI, as evidenced by the biggest sum of rank (365) replies. Effective management of athletic events was aided by the respondents’ capacity to organize future sporting events, create sports layouts, and schedule forthcoming sporting activities. People with visual intelligence are more likely to think and successfully assimilate information from visual media, such as movies, photographs, videos, and model and slide demonstrations, according to Fadhil and Prastiwi (2024), who supported these findings.

Table 9  Multiple Intelligence   Possessed by Sports Coordinators along   Visual   

Verbal Intelligence. The ability to comprehend and communicate ideas using language or words is known as verbal-linguistic intelligence. Individuals with this type of intelligence typically thrive in educational settings and professions that need effective communication (Cherry, 2023). Indicator number 26 received the highest sum of rank (437), whereas indicator number 17 had the lowest sum of rank (409), which is considered to be the most preferred verbal intelligence. This is because MAPEH uses Filipino as their medium of instruction, thus they don’t use foreign languages, and journal keeping isn’t a priority; instead,

Table 10 Multiple Intelligence   Possessed by Sports Coordinators along   Verbal   

they focus on kinesthetic exercises. According to Kutz et al. (2023), verbal intelligence was found to be the lowest whereas kinesthetic intelligence is the highest.

Visual-spatial. This includes the perception, analysis, understanding, storing, and recall of visual information.. Typical examples of children using visual-spatial intelligence include learning to catch a ball, identifying colors, drawing shapes, and imagining where a toy is before acquiring it (brightwheel.com.2024). Table 9 shows  that indicator number 18, which is considered as the most desired MI along visual, has the lowest sum of rank of 320. On the other hand, indicator number 27 has the lowest MI, as evidenced by the biggest sum of rank (365).   Fadhil and Prastiwi (2024),  supported these findings . They cited that People with visual intelligence are more likely to think and successfully assimilate information from visual media, such as movies, photographs, videos, and model and slide demonstrations.

Using the  the Adapted Instrument the respondents multiple ntelligence were ranked based on the 27 indicators corresponding to the nine multi inelligences as proposed  by Gardner (1983). Findings shows that  40 (62.50%) of the respondents possessed a bodily kinesthetics   intelligence while, music, naturalistic and verbal intelligence is the least with one respondent each (1.56%).Generally, musical intelligence, naturalistic, and verbal intelligence are the least intelligences possessed by sports coordinators. Because they are BSEd graduate, they are generalist (Main, 2023),

Table 11Summary of the Results of the Multiple Intelligence Based on the Adapted Instrument

Relationship between the Profile of the Sports

Coordinators and their Multiple Intelligence

The statistical analysis revealed that the profile is not significantly associated with their identified multiple intelligence. Likewise, the findings suggest that individual differences in multiple intelligence, do not significantly correlate with the profile and experiential variables such as age, sex, civil status, educational attainment, years in service, or specific sports or games. This implies that regardless of these factors, the distribution of multiple intelligence remains relatively consistent across the sample.

Table 12 Test for Relationship between the Profile of the Respondents and their Multiple Intelligence

Problems Encountered by the School Sports Coordinators

As presented in table 13 indicators Number 1, modules and curriculum guides are inaccessible/available in all sports events at all levels, and references in sports such as magazines, handouts, and books are not sufficient and up to date with a WM of 2.66 interpreted as oftentimes encountered. The findings implicate that the Sports Coordinator have difficulty coaching  their athletes due to inadequate instructional materials. While indicators number 6 and 7 pertaining to sports activities that coincides with other academic requirements, and parents’ unwillingness to allow their children to join sports competition had the lowest WM of 2.20 and 2.34 respectively, both interpreted as seldom encountered. Regularly, before the start of a new School Year, DepEd issue its School Calendar of Activities.  This serves as guide for the Division offices to schedule their curricular and co-curricular activities including Sports events, to prevent coinciding with curricular activities (DepEd Order 009, s.2024), without compromising the teaching-learning process.

Table 13 Problems Encountered by the School Sports Coordinators

Rating Scale:                        Descriptive Rating:

 3.26- 4.00        –           Always Encountered (AE)

 2.51-3.25         –           Oftentimes Encountered (OE)

1.76- 2.50        –           Seldom Encountered (SE)

1.00-1.75         –           Never Encountered (NE)

Intervention Developed to Enhance Skills in Managing

Sport Events Utilizing Their Multiple Intelligence

Based on the findings of this study, Project SCORE (Sports Coordinators and Coaches for Optimal Resource Engagement) is hereby proposed (see Appendix I).  Embodied is the conduct of district training on Project SCORE which focus on enhancing multiple intelligence of the coaches which they could utilized in coaching various sports events geared towards better performance of athletes in all events. Likewise, this program is anchored with Department Memorandum – OUHROD-2024-0037 issued by Wilfredo Cabral OIC – Office of the Undersecretary of Human Resource and Organizational Development the Guidelines on the conduct of INSET for SY 2023-2024 was stipulated with the theme “Nurturing the MATATAG Spirit: Empowering Teachers Key Competency.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the findings of the study the following conclusions were derived:

1. The sports coordinators, mostly middle aged had the needed physical stamina and energy, which enabled them to actively coach or train students who join competitions from school to higher levels. Likewise, their pursuit for higher level of education will enhance their coaching skills since all of them are generalist, being graduates of Bachelor’s Degree in Elementary Education (BEEd).
2. The multiple intelligence mostly possessed by the sports coordinators enabled them to cater to the diverse development needs of the athletes along with their knowledge, attitude and skills along their chosen fields. Developing and integrating this intelligence can support the students holistically to foster a more inclusive school environment and enhance both individual and team performance.
3. The significant relationship of the sports coordinators’ individual differences in multiple intelligence, do not significantly correlate with their profile. This implies that regardless of these factors, the distribution of multiple intelligence remains relatively consistent across the sample. Therefore, coaches with varied profile and multiple intelligence can be assigned as Sports Coordinator in any events, and still be effective on their field, as long as there is willingness to improve their coaching skills utilizing their MI.
4. Inadequacy of instructional/sports materials is a great challenge encountered by sports coordinators, since these hinders effective coaching. Addressing these problems requires creativity, resourcefulness, and collaboration among all sports coordinators supported by their respective school heads as well as stakeholders.
5. To address the challenges encountered by the school Sport Coordinators a Program SCORE (Sports Coordinators and Coaches for Optimal Resource Engagement) is hereby proposed.  This will look into enhancing the least multi-intelligences of the sports coordinators and sustaining their most preferred MI. More so, instructional materials will be crafted during the training which could be used during their actual coaching activities aimed in improving MI of the learners.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The conclusions lead to the following proposed recommendations:

1. The sports coordinators are encouraged to pursue their graduate studies to enhance their multiple intelligence.They may enroll in Master in Education (MEd) Major in Music, Arts,Physical Education and Health (MAPEH) which is a non- thesis program to exhibit deeper understanding of both basic and advance concepts and necessary  skills all learning    Likewise, they may  attend  MAPEH related seminars whether online or DepEd initiated. These are good avenues to enhance their multiple intelligence.
2. They may apply varied approaches and pedagogies in coaching to cater to the diverse needs of the athletes. Regular conduct of sports clinic is highly recommended.
3. In designating schools’ sports coordinators, the school head may consider their multi-intelligence. However, in the case of small schools, the sports coordinators should learn to adapt to their assignment by continuously learning through various platforms.
4. Schools may revisit the crafted IMs for its possible enhancement. Sports coordinators are highly encouraged to utilize free online resources like e-books videos, on techniques, tactics and drills. Participating on sports related trainings would be of great help. Lastly, they may regularly visit the DepEd LRMDS portal to access available resources for sports.
5. Due to the challenge on limited resources of the school, sports coordinators are encouraged to maintain partnership with the stakeholders and explore other sources to secure fundings. Further, a project proposal for trainingon multiple-intelligence be included in the school and district LAC and Inset wherein crafting of contextual lized materials be the training output to be utilized during training/coaching athletes.
6. Future researchers may conduct similar or related studies with more respondents to comprehensively understand coaches multiple intelligence. Likewise, they may conduct further researches to determine the effectiveness of the crafted instructional materials to other districts in Camarines Norte.

ACKNOWELEDGMENT

The researcher would like to express profound gratitude to the thesis adviser for offering vital counsel and unwavering support throughout the study process. The study is substantially enriched by the participants’ generous sharing of experiences, for which gratitude is expressed. The researcher expresses gratitude to the family and friends for their support and comprehension during the arduous stages of thesis finalization. Moreover, acknowledgment is extended to the scholarly resources and literature that provided the foundation for this research.

REFERENCES

Here is your properly formatted and numbered reference list with active links:

1. Aminal C. & Boutalbi D. (2020). Multiple intelligences among teachers of sport and physical education in high schools. Journal of Sport Science Technology and Physical Activities, 17(1), 238-249. ISSN: 1112-4032, eISSN: 2543-3776.
2. Armstrong, T. (2009). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.
3. Mybright Wheel (2004). A Teacher’s Guide to Visual-Spatial Intelligence.
4. Cabral, W. (2023). Department Memorandum -OUHROD-2024-0037: Guidelines on the Conduct of INSET for SY 2023-2024. www.gov.ph
5. DepEd Order No. 9, s. 2005. Instituting Measures to Increase Engaged Time – On-Task- and Ensuring Compliance Therewith. www.gov.ph
6. Esguerra, P. A. (2019). Relationship of Academic and Sports Performance of Athletes in Nueva Ecija High School. International Journal of Social Science and Humanities Research, 7(3), 461-473. ISSN: 2348-3164.
7. Fadhil, M. & Prastiwi, Y. (2024). Multiple Intelligence Theory in The Karate Kid Movie (2010): Psychology Education. Language Literacy: Journal of Linguistics, Literature, and Language Teaching, 8(1), 244-255. e-ISSN: 2580-9962, p-ISSN: 2580-8672. DOI: 10.30743/ll.v8i1.9182
8. Gardner, H. (1983). The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.
9. Greenwell, C., Crawford, S., Hancock, M., & Stoll, J. (2013). Peer Leadership and Ethical Conduct: Team Captains’ Perceptions of NCAA Athletic Conference Codes of Ethics.
10. Kaya, F., Aydin, F., Schepman, A., Rodway, P., Yetişensoy, O., & Kaya, M. D. (2023). The Roles of Personality Traits, AI Anxiety, and Demographic Factors in Attitudes toward Artificial Intelligence.
11. Kuntz, J., & Moorfield, J. (2024). Exploring Athletes’ Gendered Views of Coaches and Their Impact on Coach Competency Ratings. Vol. 74.
12. Main, P. (2023). Kinesthetic Learning.
13. Salonga, M. (2022). Performance and Lived Experiences of Sports Coaches in Tarlac Province. International Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Studies (IJAMS), 2(1). eISSN: 2799-0664.
14. Tanaka, H., & Seals, D. (2019). Endurance Exercise Performance in Masters Athletes: Age-Associated Changes and Underlying Physiological Mechanisms.
15. Taole, M. J. (2020). Diversity and Inclusion in Rural South African Multigrade Classrooms. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 24(12), 1268-1284.
16. Zayed, K., Al-Adawi, S., & Al-Kalbani, Q. (2018). Dominant Types of Multiple Intelligence in Oman: Sport Practitioners vs. Non-Practitioners. Athens Journal of Sports, 10(1), 9-18. DOI: 10.30958/ajspo.10-1-1