Newspapers’ Framing of Human Trafficking in Nigeria: A Study of Select Newspapers

Newspapers’ Framing of Human Trafficking in Nigeria: A Study of Select Newspapers

Josephine Osatohanmwen Adeyeye

Department of Mass Communication, Benson Idahosa University

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.9020309

Received: 04 February 2025; Accepted: 15 February 2025; Published: 20 March 2025

ABSTRACT

Trafficking in human beings has become a universal problem in our world today which has led to the heightened expression of concerns by governments, institutions and individuals. Despite the increasing body of research on the coverage of human trafficking by the media, there is dearth of study on how human trafficking stories are framed by the newspapers in covering the issue. The aim, therefore, is to ascertain the frames used by the selected newspapers in reporting human trafficking. This study is significant because it will assist policymakers and legislators in adopting helpful anti-trafficking responses on human trafficking that will have implications for social, economic, political and national development. Using specific frames this study examined the framing of human trafficking in four prominent Nigerian newspapers (The Guardian, The Punch, ThisDay, and Vanguard) published between January 1st, 2016, and December 31st, 2018. Using a content analysis approach, the study analyzed 354 editions of four select newspapers. The study found that the newspapers primarily used straight news as the dominant genre for reporting human trafficking; with child trafficking and sex trafficking being the most commonly reported forms. The enforcement frame was the most prevalent, suggesting that the newspapers focused on highlighting the efforts of law enforcement and government agencies in tackling human trafficking. However, the study also reveals some limitations in the newspapers’ coverage, including a lack of exploration of the underlying socioeconomic and political factors contributing to human trafficking, and missed opportunities to personalize the stories and elicit empathy from readers. The study concludes that while the Nigerian newspapers provided factual and informative reporting on human trafficking, their framing of the issue was somewhat narrow in scope, and recommends that the media should explore more news genres/frames in reporting human trafficking to induce behavioral and attitudinal change among members of the society.

Keywords: Human Trafficking, Media, Framing, Nigerian Newspapers, Content Analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Trafficking in human beings has become a universal problem that affects every single nation and constitutes a grave human rights violation. Conservative estimates indicate that well over 20 million persons globally have been affected directly and indirectly (Atkinson, Curnin & Hanson, 2016). The core definition of human trafficking in the United States’ law is found in the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000. According to this law, trafficking is a criminal offense when it takes a “severe” form, defined as follows:

(a) the recruitment, harbouring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery; or (b) sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act has not attained 18 years of age (TVPA, 2000).

The issue of human trafficking has caused significant harm, as its victims often experience physical and psychological abuse, leading to serious mental or emotional health consequences. These include feelings of severe guilt, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and eating disorders (Sharapov, 2014). In 2012, the government collaborated with the European Union and the United-Nations Office on Drugs Crime (UNODC) to promote awareness about the realities, perils, and consequences associated with irregular migration.

Furthermore, in April 2017, the Federal government continued its efforts to prevent trafficking and drafted a 2018-2023 nationwide action strategic plan to help develop the nation’s policy on human trafficking, including protocols and rules for identification, safe return, reintegration, and empowerment of victims (U.S. State Department’s Trafficking in Persons Report, 2018). In 2019, the government of the United Kingdom, in collaboration with Nigeria’s anti-trafficking agency, initiated a new media campaign entitled “I am not for sale” to discourage women and young girls from being lured, exploited, and traded into modern-day slavery (Adebayo, 2019). Despite the government’s efforts, the issue of human trafficking has increased tremendously, gaining negative prominence. This is evident in the recent Global Slavery Index Reports in 2018, which ranked Nigeria 32 out of the 167 countries with the highest number of slaves, with an approximate total of 1,386,000 slaves. The 2023 Global Slavery Index estimates that on any given day in 2021, there were 1.6 million individuals living in modern slavery in Nigeria. This equates to a prevalence of 7.8 people in modern slavery for every thousand people in the country. Within the Africa region, Nigeria is ranked fifth out of 51 countries in terms of prevalence of modern slavery, and 38 out of 160 countries globally (Global Slavery Index, 2023).

The press, as the watchdog of society, is responsible for making sense of what is happening around the society and sensitizing the citizenry to the events in their immediate environment. Okunna (2002) believes that the press wields a lot of power, which, when used properly, can bring about behavioural and social change.

Human trafficking remains a pervasive and devastating issue in Nigeria, with thousands of lives being exploited and destroyed every year. Despite efforts by government and non-governmental organizations, the problem persists, indicating a critical need for a more effective approach. The media, with its immense influence, has a vital role to play in shaping public discourse, promoting awareness, and driving change. However, the media’s current efforts may be falling short, as human trafficking continues to thrive.

A significant problem is the media’s potential perpetuation of harmful stereotypes and stigmatization of victims, which can exacerbate the issue and hinder efforts to combat it. Moreover, the voices and stories of victims are often marginalized, oversimplified, or entirely erased, further entrenching their vulnerability. This study seeks to investigate how Nigerian newspapers frame the issue of human trafficking. In examining newspapers’ role in shaping the narrative around human trafficking, this research aims to identify opportunities for improvement and ultimately contribute to a more effective and empathetic approach to addressing this complex issue. This work therefore focuses on the framing of human trafficking in select Nigerian newspapers (The Guardian, The Punch, ThisDay, and Vanguard).

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study are to:

1. Identify the story genre used in reporting human trafficking.
2. Identify the dominant form of human trafficking reported by the selected newspapers.
3. Ascertain the frames used by the selected newspapers in reporting human trafficking.

 LITERATURE REVIEW

Human trafficking includes all involuntary prostitution, child prostitution, home servitude, unlawful and bonded labour, subservient marriage, dishonest adoption, sex leisure industry and show business, pornography, systematized begging, bodily parts/organ harvesting, and other illegal and criminal activities (Nkememena, 2009). This current-day ill of human trafficking is stimulated and exacerbated by several forces and factors that have been labelled as ‘push and pull’ factors which are not peculiar to Nigeria alone. The push factors describe all the negative and hostile living conditions such as the harsh socio-economic conditions, the deep-rooted animosities, horrible poverty, regional imbalances, and inadequate programmes and packages of government for the establishment of employment or other revenue creating activities for human survival. The pull factors on the other hand refer to factors such as low-risk high profit, demand for sex and low skilled labour and the personal desire of a citizen for an improved quality of life. All of these promote the rising trend of trafficking in persons (Iyanda & Nwogwugwu, 2016, Badejo, 2016).

The effects of human trafficking can be examined from two perspectives viz: individuals and communities. From the viewpoint of its effects on individual citizens, human trafficking adversely impairs the total health and wellness status of the individual and thereafter makes the victim lose out on future prospects and possibilities of life. This affects all victims whether adult or adolescent and especially victims who are children or minors (Oppong, 2012).  Studies by the International Labour Organization show that in some emerging nations children who are victims of trafficking sooner or later develop several health challenges and complications like an anomaly with their heart, body, poisoning due to the breathing of toxic gases, severe chest complications as a result of inhaling excessive dust, burns and stunted growth, disruptions in their education, etc. All of these arise from poor and substandard living and working conditions to which these victims have been exposed (Masudi, Ishumi & Sambo, 2001). Further still, Salihu and Chutiyami (2016) posits that victims of human trafficking come down with some mental and psychological conditions such as suicidal thoughts and tendencies, insomnia and difficulty in getting sleep, violent behaviour, drug addiction, desperation etc.  The negative effects on the sexual health of the victims include unwanted pregnancies, hepatitis B, prolonged pelvic disease, and HIV/AIDS coupled with high incidences of abortion which leads to the injury and damage of bodily organs of reproduction (Salihu & Chutiyami, 2016).

At the community level, statistics on human trafficking has not been consistently and systematically documented, especially in several developing nations. There are, however, some basically identified and other speculated influences of human trafficking on peoples and societies globally. Some of these are the decline in prospects for children who fall prey to human trafficking globally; the damaging effect on culture and a loss of the culture since either the parents or the children are trafficked. Where this occurs, there is no opportunity for guardians or parents to transmit the cultural values and beliefs of their homelands to their children and the next generation. The effects on society would also include the potentially damaging effects of the introduction of foreign ideas and new values into the society by returnee victims who have the opportunity of returning to their homeland after managing to escape by chance or being rescued by the government or any other agency, or individual institution. There is also a decline in the availability of labour in the communities from which the victims were recruited and harvested. Consequently, these communities lag behind with reference to development as some useful and productive persons would have been harvested as victims for the traffickers.  In such communities, only the senior citizens / the elderly and the very young ones who are not actively economically very productive would be left (Oppong, 2012).

In 2023, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) delves into current evidence of trafficking, risk areas, and frameworks and responses to human trafficking in the Pacific Island countries.   In two countries, Fiji and Palau, the report examines the severity of trafficking in persons cases. The data suggest that roughly 0.6 per cent of the population in both states have experienced ‘severe’ instances of trafficking in persons for forced labour, while many more have experienced less violent forms of trafficking or exploitation.  Assuming the prevalence rates in Fiji and Palau could be roughly applied to all six islands in the story, the estimated number of persons experiencing trafficking could amount to 2,400 over the course of five years (UNODC, 2023).

In regards to survivors of this menace, Polizzi, D’Arcy, Harris, Yates, Cullen, and Andrew (2024) study, found that, while organizations are doing meaningful work in this area, government funding for the provision of digital technologies for survivors is often insufficient and inconsistent. They argued that digital access – via devices and data packages – as well as digital skills and safety training are vital for survivors to access support services and undertake essential tasks such as paying bills, engaging with counseling, connecting with friends and family, and pursuing professional opportunities.

Issues of digital exclusion, such as gaps in digital access, skills, and attitudes, are still prevalent and often intertwined with broader socio-economic inequalities. Key factors influencing digital exclusion are poverty, social class, age, gender, ethnicity, and disability (Helsper, 2021; Reisdorf & Rhinesmith, 2020; Yates et al., 2020). For survivors, digital exclusion can hinder (re)integration into society (Polizzi et al., 2024).

Although digital inclusion can provide access to services and other benefits, use of digital technologies without adequate digital skills and knowledge can contribute to exposure to online risks. This is of particular concern for survivors of modern slavery, as digital platforms are actively used by traffickers in recruitment, abuse, and re-trafficking (O’Brien & Li, 2020; United Nations, 2022).

In addition to the definition and ills of human trafficking, the issue of human trafficking has attracted and increased media attention and thus provides a case study for framing researchers because of its composite nature of many crimes that are linked to migration, labour, gender, and health issues, human rights and criminal justice (Sanford, Martínez and Weitzer, 2016).

Framing is a journalistic tool through which journalists shape perceptions by interpreting the complexity of key issues such as human trafficking.  Austin (2016) opines that societal evils such as human trafficking need to undergo a framing process to promote a specific understanding and interpretation of the subject matter. Understanding frames are important because the interpretations of issues that frames encourage influence how policy makers and the public respond to the problem (Goffman, 1974). ).  For example, Austin (2016) states an instance where the war on drugs encouraged the interpretation of crack/cocaine usage as a criminal issue that can lead to victimization. Therefore, the reaction to the frame was to establish strict crime control policies on the usage and distribution of crack/cocaine.

Sanford, et.al (2016) also noted that the mass media can influence both official policies and public perceptions of human trafficking and that such representations can invoke a variety of images. They gave an instance of how Peter Landesman’s 2004 article, “The Girls Next Door” featured in the New York Times; imply that trafficked victims are hidden in plain sight and that these portrayals may tell only a smaller part of the story regarding human trafficking and yet may nevertheless predominate in media reporting on the issue. Also, regarding Landesman’s human trafficking article, researchers that have examined the frames in the article, suggests that human trafficking frames in print media are for the most part inaccurate in terms of oversimplifying human trafficking and the representation of victims (Barnett, 2015; Johnston, Friedman, & Sobel, 2015; Friedman, & Shafer, 2014; Szörényi & Eate, 2014; Sobel, 2014).

However, a better understanding of the context wherein human trafficking is discussed and how the issue is framed can offer us insight into what is seen by the actors as causal reasons behind human trafficking, thereby helping us find ways to resolve this difficult problem in the later stage of policy and law formulation (Meriläinen & Vos, 2015).

Irrespective of the problematic nature of human trafficking, scholars have assessed media coverage/framing of human trafficking in several countries and across different news media. Studies on media coverage/framing of human trafficking has been conducted globally and locally, which includes but not limited to the following researches: Farrell & Fahy, 2009; Nkememena, 2009; Pajnik, 2010; Gulati, 2011; Egbo, 2011; Marchionni, 2012; Johnson, Friedman & Shafer, 2014; Borer, 2015; Ikechukwu, 2015; Stanford, Martizez & Weitzer, 2016; Virkus, 2014.

Despite the above-mentioned studies conducted globally and locally, there is a dearth of studies on media framing of human trafficking issues within the Nigerian context. The current study uses frames that are different from the ones used in the various studies reviewed as an attempt to explain the extent of the problem to the audience in order to provoke social and attitudinal change towards the phenomenon.

Consequently, this study analysed newspaper framing of human trafficking in Nigerian with select newspapers. It specifically looked at the story genres, dominant form of human trafficking reported and the frames used.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This study is anchored on the framing theory as propounded by Erving Goffman in 1974. Framing refers to the practice of thinking about news items and story content within a familiar context (Scheufele & Tewksbury, 2007). The proponents of the framing theory, according to Scheufele & Tewksbury (2007), include the sociologist Erving Goffman, the cognitive linguist Lakoff, the communicators Entman and Iyengar, and the economists and psychologists, Kahneman and Tversky. In 1974, Goffman developed a theory of frame bold analysis that focuses on how individuals learn to routinely make sense of their social world. In it, he argues that people “locate, perceive, identify and label” events and occurrences (Baran and Davis, 2006).

Framing entails a communication outlet/source presenting and defining an issue and describes how complex issues which are difficult to understand may be decomposed and demystified for easy comprehension. Framing theory denotes a fundamental organizing idea/ guideline for news content that provides a context and recommends what the matter is by employing the technique of selection, emphasis, exclusion and elaboration (Ogba, 2017). This means that framing takes place whenever the news media selects certain aspects of events, emphasize and highlight such aspects to the exclusion of some other aspects and continuously elaborate or reiterate it (Arowolo, 2017).

Frames are important in processing and interpreting events because they allow people to locate, perceive, identify, evaluate and understand a particular problem. This will enable the audiences to derive meaning from the textual description and also in the process, interact between visual schemata and text. Therefore, media representation of an event determines to a very large extent the way the audience or readers will understand the manifest content (Amenaghawon, 2019).

At a theoretical and descriptive level, framing research offers a rich explanation for how various actors in society define science-related issues in politically strategic ways, how journalists from various beats selectively cover these issues, and how diverse sections of the public differentially perceive, understand, and participate in these debates (Nisbet & Scheufele, 2009). Scheufele (2000) outlined the framing process as follows:

Frame-Building → Frame-setting → Individual-level” consequences” of framing

(Elites, interest                   (media frames to               (Attributes of causal treatment

Groups, etc)                         audience frames)                Responsibility)

According to the diagram as contained in Scheufele (2000), framing involves frame-building, then followed by frame-setting which will in turn lead to individual-level framing which he called the ‘consequences of framing’.  As a theory of media effect, framing has gained much recognition because some scholars believe that the way a particular issue is framed can ultimately change people’s perception of that issue.  Numerous studies in communication and related fields reveal that changes to the way an issue is framed, even if trivial, can significantly affect how audiences perceive the issue (Schuldt & Roh, 2014).

Framing as a concept and theory does not only determine the number of times, human trafficking stories appeared in the content of a newspaper or how much people are discussing the issue; but also the effects the news reports on human trafficking may have on the audience and how it may lead to change in their belief or attitude.

METHODOLOGY

In this study, the research design adopted is content analysis. The rationale for selecting this method is that it is the most appropriate and the only applicable method to scrutinize manifest communication content in printed form as contained on the pages of the Nigerian dailies to discover the extant patterns. The population of the study comprises all 4384 editions of the select newspapers of which is The Guardian, The Punch, ThisDay and Vanguard newspapers from January 1^st 2016 – December 31^st 2018. The study period was chosen basically because of its significance in the area of human trafficking: the year 2016 was selected as the start date because trafficked victims soared from 1,454 to 11,009 as reported by Pathfinder, 2018. The year 2017 is also of great significance as it was the year the Federal Government designed a five-year nationwide action strategic plan document including the first draft of a protocol for identification, safe return and rehabilitation of trafficked persons (U.S. State Department’s TIRs, 2018). While in 2018, the Oba of Benin Kingdom acted against trafficking, he pronounced curses on sex traffickers and revoked all charms that were used to bind victims to their traffickers in order to achieve the goal of victims’ identification and willingness to participate in trials against their traffickers (Pathfinders, 2018; U.S State Department’s TIPRs, 2018).

The sample size for the study is 354 editions of the newspapers under study. The value was obtained using the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) table for determining sample size. The table gives the value 354 as the appropriate sample size for the number range of 4001- 4500 within which the population of this study falls.

In determining the sampling frame, systematic sampling and non-probability sampling techniques were adopted. Firstly, the systematic sampling technique was used as a pattern for the selection of the sample of editions of the newspapers studied.  To achieve this, a systematic step was taken to establish an nth term (sampling interval) that was used for the selection process.  The nth term was established logically by dividing the sample size of the study by the study population. See the calculation below:

Nth term = Sample size/Population

Sample size = 354

Population = 4384

Nth term = 354/4384 = 12.4

Nth term = 12

Based on the above, the sampling interval is nth equal to 12. To start the selection process, the starting number was selected at random from the first 12 dates listed. This procedure was done randomly to reduce the sampling error; by writing the dates from day 1- day 12^th on a piece of paper, squeezed and shuffling the pieces in a bag; then pick day 4 to start the selection process; then select every twelfth day thereafter until we reached the sample size of the study.

The instrument used to obtain information for the study was the code sheet. The code sheet as well as the coding guide was designed to aid the ascribing of numerical figures to manifest contents. It was used to gather, sort, record, and code data from the newspaper editions investigated.

Categories of Frames for the study

RESULTS

The section below reviews data related to the current study based on the data collated from the newspapers reviewed.

Story genres

Table 1: Genres used in reporting human trafficking in select Nigerian newspapers

The data in table 1 suggests that the selected Nigerian newspapers primarily used straight news as the dominant genre for reporting on human trafficking, with percentages ranging from 52.8% to 87% across the three newspapers and three years. This indicates that the newspapers were focused on presenting factual and objective information about human trafficking cases and trends. The prevalence of opinion articles, which ranged from 9.4% to 34.3%, suggests that the newspapers also provided a platform for discussion and debate on this issue. The relatively low percentages of editorial and letters-to-editor genres suggest that the newspapers may not have been actively engaging the public in a more direct way on the topic of human trafficking.

Dominant forms of human trafficking

Table 2: Dominant form of human trafficking reported by the selected newspapers

The data in this table reveals the newspapers’ focus on specific forms of human trafficking, with child trafficking and sex trafficking being the most commonly reported across all four newspapers and three years. This suggests that these two forms of trafficking were particularly prevalent and pressing issues in Nigeria during the time period. The consistent reporting on these forms of trafficking may have helped raise awareness and spur action to address these problems. The data also shows some variations in the reporting on other forms of trafficking, such as forced labor, child soldiers, and organ trafficking, indicating that the newspapers may have responded to emerging trends and shifting priorities in the fight against human trafficking.

Frames

Table 3: Frames used by the select newspapers in reporting human trafficking

The data in this table demonstrates the different frames used by the selected Nigerian newspapers in their coverage of human trafficking. The predominant use of the enforcement frame, ranging from 13.3% to 46.5%, suggests that the newspapers were focused on highlighting the efforts of law enforcement and government agencies in tackling this issue. The response frame, which ranged from 7.3% to 22.2%, implies that the newspapers also emphasized the attempt of government action and response to human trafficking cases. The relatively lower percentages of the economic, attribution of responsibility, and conspiracy frames suggest that the newspapers may not have delved as deeply into the underlying socioeconomic and political factors that contribute to human trafficking. The limited use of the human-interest frame, which ranged from 0% to 21.9%, indicates that the newspapers may have missed opportunities to personalize the stories and elicit empathy from their readers.

DISCUSSION

The current study’s findings reveal that Nigerian newspapers primarily framed human trafficking through a straight news genre, focusing on factual and objective reporting. This collaborates with the results of findings by Adeyeye & Egbulefu, 2022; Stanford et. al, 2016; Santas, 2015; Nkememena, 2009), that the format in reporting stories was mainly straight news. This suggests that the newspapers prioritized informing the public about the realities of human trafficking cases and trends over in-depth analysis or sensationalism.

The dominant forms of human trafficking reported were child trafficking and sex trafficking, which accounted for the majority of the coverage across all four newspapers in three years. This indicates that these forms of trafficking were particularly prevalent and pressing issues in Nigeria during the study period. This finding is in line with the findings of Adeyeye & Egbulefu (2022) and Nkememena, (2009), with a different thought that it could mean that Nigerians are in the habit of trafficking children since they are defenceless and inevitably depend on their immediate human and material environment to cater for their numerous needs or that the phenomenon of baby factory might have promoted child trafficking by creating room for exploiting young girls with undesirable conception and the continuation of such abuses and exploitations would seriously undermine the developmental capacity of children, thereby mortgaging the future of the entire nation. Though, the consistent reporting on these forms of trafficking may have helped raise awareness and spur action to address these problems.

The study’s findings also show that the newspapers used various frames to report on human trafficking, with the enforcement frame being the most prevalent. This suggests that the newspapers focused on highlighting the efforts of law enforcement and government agencies in tackling human trafficking. The response frame was also prominent, implying that the newspapers emphasized the attempt of government action and response to human trafficking cases.  On the other hand, presenting human trafficking within the frame of arrest can create a mental impression in the mind of the readers that human trafficking is a criminal issue rather than a social/human rights issue. Casting trafficking in human beings in the light of crime mainly might lead to incorrect framing of the problem which in turn may misdirect policymakers/legislators to adopt wrong anti-trafficking responses (Renata, Kayse & Andrew, 2020).

However, the study’s findings also reveal some limitations in the newspapers’ coverage of human trafficking. The relatively low percentages of economic, attribution of responsibility, and conspiracy frames suggest that the newspapers may not have delved deeply into the underlying socioeconomic and political factors that contribute to human trafficking. Additionally, the limited use of the human-interest frame indicates that the newspapers may have missed opportunities to personalize the stories and elicit empathy from their readers.

The current study’s findings resonate with existing research on human trafficking and media coverage. For instance, Nkememena’s (2009) content analysis of Nigerian newspapers revealed similar limitations and sensationalism in reporting on child trafficking. Similarly, Okeshola and Adenugba’s (2018) study highlighted the complex drivers of human trafficking, including poverty and inequality, aligning with the current study’s emphasis on the need for a comprehensive approach.

However, the current study’s findings depart from Oppong’s (2012) assertion that human trafficking is perpetuated through organized crime. Instead, the study suggests that Nigerian newspapers may have overlooked the underlying socioeconomic and political factors contributing to human trafficking. Furthermore, while Sanford et al.’s (2016) content analysis of U.S. newspapers share similarities with the current study’s methodology, the geographical focus and specific findings differ.

CONCLUSION

The study concludes that while the Nigerian newspapers provided factual and informative reporting on human trafficking, their framing of the issue was somewhat narrow in scope. The newspapers’ focus on the enforcement and response aspects of the problem, coupled with the limited exploration of the underlying societal and structural factors, as well as the missed opportunities to personalize the stories, suggest that a more holistic and empathetic approach to reporting could contribute to a more impactful and comprehensive understanding of this pressing social issue within the Nigerian context. As a result of the outcome of the present study and related issues observed from the field, it is recommended that the media should explore more news genres/frames in reporting human trafficking in order to discover more balanced, broader perspectives that could help in the understanding of the problem which in turn can induce behavioral and attitudinal change among members of the society.

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