Parent-Child Closeness and Study Attitudes and Methods of Children of Overseas Filipino Workers

Parent-Child Closeness and Study Attitudes and Methods of Children of Overseas Filipino Workers

Joanna Edelle R. Mania ¹, Frances Suzanne G. Soronel², Jamaica H. Diaton ³, Godfrey Miko L. Limos⁴, and Jonathan P. Vergara⁵

Saint Mary’s Unversity

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.804116

Received: 04 April 2024; Accepted: 12 April 2024; Published: 14 May 2024

ABSTRACT

Parental support and guidance are essential to the education of children of OFWs. These students feel pressured to repay their parent’s sacrifices through their academics, and are overwhelmed with balancing their school assignments and household responsibilities. This study aimed to determine the levels of parent-child closeness and study attitudes and methods, and determine its relationship. It sought to compare the level of parent-child closeness, in terms of sex, birth order, and number of years abroad. A quantitative research approach, specifically a descriptive, comparative, correlational design, was used to examine the parent-child closeness and study attitudes and methods of 100 adult children of OFWs studying at university. Findings revealed that children of OFWs are moderately close to their mothers, and very close to their fathers. They have a high academic interest and study methods, and have low academic drive-conformity, study anxiety, manipulation, and alienation towards authority. Maternal and Paternal closeness to the adult child was not found to significantly differ, in terms of sex, birth order, or number of years abroad. Furthermore, maternal regard was found to be positively correlated with academic interest (r=0.43), academic drive-conformity (r=0.38), and study methods (r=0.27), while maternal responsibility was negatively correlated with academic interest (r=0.29). The study’s findings can be a basis for the development of programs and activities for children of OFWs, to assist them in balancing home and school responsibilities.

Keywords: maternal closeness, paternal closeness, OFW parents, study attitudes and methods, adult children, parental regard, parentification, paternal control

INTRODUCTION

The family is the basic structure of society, changes in the family structure influence how children develop and how they interact with the world outside of home. With there being at least 10 million Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW), the families left behind deal with its social and emotional costs (Cleofas et al., 2021). Transnational parenting brings with it issues with communication, gender disparities in caregiving, academic, psychological, and even physical challenges. Many lack proper parental guidance and stability as they were growing up (Mendoza, 2022; Cleofas et al., 2021). Botezat (2018) adds that parental absence creates a negative impact in their children’s educational In spite of government programs, updated technology for communication, or the rise of transnational parenting, children still feel a gap between themselves and their parents, with some realizing that something is lacking in their relationship (Lobos et al, 2019).

Parent-child closeness is the extent that parents and their children are behaviorally and emotionally connected to each other, involving emotional closeness and voluntary self-disclosure (Chang & Yu, 2018). For Peisah et. al (1999) it involved three dimensions: Regard referred to filial gratitude, attachment, care, and perceived closeness or compatibility. Responsibility involves parental behaviors and the adult child’s feelings of guilt or burden to them. This has elements of parentification and the desire to compensate for the parent´s suffering. They add that control is a factor relevant for fathers only, refers to parental power in the relationship. Parent-child closeness is then defined as the overall strength of a relationship between parent and child, involving factors such as closeness and perceived support, warmth and control, and the feeling of being understood. According to Chen (2022), parental involvement is important in education, parent-child closeness has a positive impact on academic achievement, student attitude, motivation, and behavior. This was supported by Distor and Campos (2021), who noted that children of OFWs had adjustment problems in terms of school performance, however it was also noted that the absence of their parents was seen as a source of inspiration.

Study attitudes and methods or SAM refer to an individual’s beliefs, values, and attitudes about studying and learning (Johnson, 2020). He adds that attitudes can include a person’s motivation to learn, level of engagement in academic activities, beliefs about their abilities and potential for success, and approach to studying and learning. For Michael, W. B., Michael, J. J., & Zimmerman, W. S. (1988), there are six dimensions of study attitudes and methods, namely: academic interest, academic drive-conformity, study methods, study anxiety, manipulation, and alienation towards authority. Academic Interest is the pleasure gained by studying, this is the intrinsic motivation of a love for learning for its own sake. Academic Drive involves persistence and a high degree of conformity. Study Methods are the systematic, organized, methodical, and well-planned set of working habits and procedures, to meet assignments and in preparing for examinations. It is the use of effective study skills and techniques to best manage the student´s use of time and ability. Study Anxiety is the fear that the student’s competence is lacking, as a result of a lack of self-confidence and self-assurance, creating panic or terror when taking examinations or meeting teacher expectations. Manipulation refers to the willingness to use power and influence to achieve the goal, to gain favorable treatment or special consideration, even at the expense of others. Lastly, alienation toward authority refers to the fear of academic isolation or rejection by its members.

It was found that parents have a significant impact on their children’s academic performance through becoming their source of motivation. However, some may feel pressured to perform well academically, as a way of giving back to their parents, causing stress and anxiety towards their academics (Estonanto, 2018). The findings of this study benefits students, parents, educational institutions, as well as the field of psychology and guidance counseling as it would bring awareness to the relationship between parent-child closeness and study attitudes and methods. Moreover, it contributes to the field of psychology and guidance and counseling by discovering the level of parent-child closeness of children of OFWs, as well as the study attitudes and methods.

Statement of the Problem

This study aimed to determine the parent-child closeness and study attitudes of children of Overseas Filipino Workers. Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions:

1. What is the demographic profile of the respondents, in terms of:

1. sex;
2. birth order;
3. OFW parent;
4. number of years OFW Parent/s spent abroad?

2. What is the level of closeness of the respondents to their parents, in terms of:

1. maternal regard;
2. maternal responsibility;
3. paternal regard;
4. paternal responsibility;
5. paternal control?

3. What is the level of study attitudes and methods of the respondents, in terms of:

1. academic interest;
2. academic drive-conformity;
3. study methods;
4. study anxiety;
5. manipulation;
6. alienation towards authority?

4. Is there a significant difference in the level of closeness of the respondents, when they are grouped as to profile variables?

5. Is there a significant relationship between the level of closeness of the respondents to their OFW parent/s and their level of study attitudes and methods?

Statement of the Null Hypotheses

1. There is no significant difference in the level of closeness of the respondent to their OFW parent/s when they are grouped as to the profile variables.
2. There is no significant relationship between the level of closeness of the respondents to their OFW parent/s and level of study attitudes and methods.

METHODOLOGY

The study utilized a qualitative, descriptive, comparative, and correlational research design. It was conducted in Saint Mary’s University A.Y. 2023-2024. Its participants were 100 children of OFWs, enrolled in Saint Mary’s University and whose SAM scores were available at the Guidance and Testing Office. The participants were selected through purposive sampling, they were identified through the members of the Marian Coalition of Sons and Daughters of OFWs (MCSDO) and their acquaintances who were children of OFWs but did not inform the school of the status.

The respondents were asked to answer a two-part questionnaire composed of a researcher-made demographic profile questionnaire asking their sex, birth order, OFW parent, and number of years spent abroad. It also included the Parent Adult Child Relationship Questionnaire (Peisah et al., 1999). The 26-item questionnaire was used to measure the strength of the relationship between adults and their parents, from the perspective of the adult child. The tool was divided into 13 items concerning the mother, consisting of eight items for responsibility and five for regard. For the 13 items concerning the father, four are allotted for responsibility, four for regard, and five for control. This was rated by answering from a scale of 3 (very true), 2 (moderately true), 2 (somewhat true), and 0 (not true at all).  To measure parent-child closeness, the overall mean was generated, wherein a mean of 0.00-1.00 indicated that closeness was low, that they were not close, 1.01-1.50 indicated that they were somewhat close, 1.51-2.00 indicated that they were moderately close, and 2.01-3.00 indicated that closeness was high or they were very close.

The Study Attitudes and Methods (SAM) scores were gathered from the Guidance and Testing Office. This is a 90-item questionnaire measuring the six dimensions of study attitudes and methods (SAM). It was designed to identify students who may experience difficulty in schoolwork, due to poor study methods, and for counseling purposes through providing guidance in areas that contribute to a difficulty. The questionnaire contained six dimensions of SAM namely academic interest, academic drive-conformity, study methods, study anxiety, manipulation, and alienation towards authority. The survey consists of a total of 90 items, with 15 items allotted for each subscale. This was rated by the participants by answering 0 (not at all like me, or different from me), 1 (seldom, or somewhat like me), 2 (frequently, or much like me), and 3 (almost always, or very much like me). Its results were interpreted through the raw mean score of each dimension. In the dimensions of academic interest, academic drive-conformity, and study methods, a higher score is better. For the dimensions of study anxiety, manipulation and alienation towards authority, a lower mean score is better.

For the statistical analysis, mean and SD were used for the demographic profile of the respondents, the level of parent child closeness and level of study attitudes and methods. Significant differences in the level of closeness when grouped by sex, birth order and number of years abroad were measured through Independent Samples T-test and ANOVA. The relationship between parent child closeness and study attitudes and methods were measured through Pearson Correlation Coefficient. The study followed the ethical considerations of the school, and while the conduct of the study did not cause distress to any participant, the researchers were prepared to provide support through referrals to the Guidance and Testing Office.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Section 1. Profile of the Respondents

The profile variables considered in the study were sex, birth order, OFW parent, and number of years OFW parents spent abroad.

Table 1. Demographic Profile of the Children of Overseas Filipino Workers

Table 1 shows that there were 100 respondents. Most of the respondents are female (77%), while less than a quarter were male (23%). Most of the respondents are first born (44%), with a quarter being middle children (25%), followed by only children (18%), and few respondents being youngest children (13%). Most of the respondents had OFW mothers (68%), followed by OFW fathers (26%), and few had both parents working as OFWs (6%). Most of the respondents have parents who have been abroad for less than 10 years (43%), some have been abroad for 11-20 years (42%), and few had parents who have been abroad for more than 20 years (15%).

Section 2. Parent Child Closeness

Table 2. Level of Closeness Towards the OFW Mother

Mean Range Description: 0.00-1.00 (Low Closeness); 1.01-1.50 (Somewhat Close); 1.51-2.00 (Moderately Close); 2.01-3.00 (Very Close). Mean Range for Responsibility: 0.00-1.00 (Very Responsible); 1.01-1.50 (Moderately Responsible); 1.51-2.00 (Somewhat Responsible); 2.01-3.00 (Not Responsible)

The level of maternal closeness of the respondents is presented in table 2. The result shows that overall, the respondents are moderately close with their mothers (M=1.71, SD=0.39). Specifically, they are the closest to their mother in terms of maternal regard (M=2.61, SD=.58) and are moderately close in terms of maternal responsibility (M=1.88, SD= .69).

The overall result shows that children of OFWs are moderately close to their mother. This implies that while regard their mother well, the feeling of responsibility towards of their mother serves as a barrier in their relationship. They moderately feel that they are taking over the role of the mother in the family, and must strive to accomplish the expectations of their parent in school and in the household. Hence, there is some hesitation in approaching their mother as there is a feeling that they are expected to be independent and capable of making decisions for their own well-being, and the well-being of the family they are made responsible for. A moderately close relationship between the two tends to be marked with authority, while reciprocity tends to be less important. The parent gives direction in the relationship, and the child may not communicate their perceptions in the relationship, perhaps in respect to the authority of the elder (Adams et al., 2001). This is supported by Rendeza (2017) who mention that children become emotionally close to their parents regardless of the responsibilities that were passed to them by their mothers. However, it was contradicted by Delima (2022) and Abenir (2019) who observed that children of OFWs tend to be more affected when children are left with their fathers as filipino culture tends to view females as care givers in the family. The shift in family roles of the father from provider to nurturer can have a negative impact as children may struggle as care work is passed on to other women in the family.

Table 3. Level of Closeness Towards the OFW Father

Mean Range Description: 0.00-1.00 (Low Closeness); 1.01-1.50 (Somewhat Close); 1.51-2.00 (Moderately Close); 2.01-3.00 (Very Close). Mean Range for Responsibility: 0.00-1.00 (Very Responsible); 1.01-1.50 (Moderately Responsible); 1.51-2.00 (Somewhat Responsible); 2.01-3.00 (Not Responsible). Mean Range for Control: 0.00-1.00 (Very Controlled); 1.01-1.50 (Moderately Controlled); 1.51-2.00 (Somewhat Controlled); 2.01-3.00 (Not Controlled)

Table 3 clearly shows the paternal closeness of the respondents. The result shows that overall, the respondents are very close to their OFW fathers (M=2.03, SD=0.50). They are highest in the dimension of paternal regard (M=2.37, SD=0.55), followed by paternal control (M=2.20, SD=0.78), and lastly, paternal responsibility (M=1.47, SD=0.66).

The overall result shows that children of OFWs are very close to their father. This implies that they feel very close to their OFW father, moderately responsible for their father, and do not feel that they are being controlled by their father. While they may feel that they are taking over the role of the father in the family structure, they are able to maintain their sense of closeness, and they are capable of making household and social decisions independently of the imagined reaction of their parent. The very close relationship between the two implies also that authority tends to be low, and reciprocity tends to be high. Wherein, the role of the father as an authoritarian tends to be low, supported by the finding that the children of OFWs do not feel controlled by their father. Furthermore, the children of OFWs are able to communicate their perspective to their father, supported by the finding that they can rely on their father’s help when needed (Adams et al., 2001).

Section 3. Study Attitudes and Methods

Table 4. Level of Study Attitudes and Methods

Mean Range Description for Academic Interest:  0-20 (Low), 22-45 (High); Mean Range Description for Academic Drive-Conformity: 0-34 (Low), 36-45 (High); Mean Range Description for Study Methods: 0-26 (Low), 28-45 (High); Mean Range Description for Study Anxiety: 0-20 (Low), 22-45 (High); Mean Range Description for Manipulation: 0-10 (Low), 12-45 (High); Mean Range Description for Alienation towards Authority: 0-14 (Low), 16-45 (High);

As can be seen in table 4, the respondents scored high in the dimensions of academic interest (M=22.14, SD=7.33) and study methods (M=27.86, SD=7.78). They generally had a low level of academic drive (M=31.03, SD=7.32), study anxiety (M=25.82, SD=7.76), manipulation (M=12.24, SD=7.48), and alienation towards authority (M=16.06, SD=7.22).

The findings above indicate that the children of OFWs generally enjoy new things and doing school work. This finding was further supported by Pajarillo-Aquino (2019) and Rendeza (2017), wherein this interest enables them to do well academically without academic assistance from their parents. The results also show that children of OFWs are generally systematic and organized; they have developed study habits that have enabled them to work efficiently. This was corroborated by Sudderth (2022) who observed that children of OFWs are challenged by time management, lack of parental guidance and supervision, and financial constraints. The table also presents that the children of OFWs generally have low academic drive. Low academic drive implies that they may be unable to put a great deal of effort into schoolwork. This finding does not necessarily mean that children of OFWs do not generally try to perform well in school or that they generally get low grades, but that the focus on household work and other family duties may prevent them from attaining the educational outcomes that they are capable of (Botezat, 2018).

High study anxiety indicates that they are generally very worried about their academic performance, and may suffer a lack of confidence in their abilities. Furthermore, they may be fearful of being a disappointment to their parents, as much attention is given towards the importance of their children’s educational performance for OFW parents, as supported by the studies of Dominguez and Hall (2022), and Estonanto (2018). A high score in manipulation indicates that they may try to manipulate teachers for the purpose of getting better grades, or their fellow students for special favors. This could imply that some children of OFWs do not value getting good grades through hard work as a result of materialism. This could be due to the desire for their teachers to be aware and empathetic towards their struggles and responsibilities (Aguilar, 2020). Lastly, a high score in alienation toward authority may imply that they struggle with accepting the authority of teachers and other school authorities. They may also feel that the teachers are there to punish, rather than support them.

Section 4. Significant Differences of Level of Closeness When Grouped According to the Profile Variables

Table 5. Comparison of the Respondents’ Level of Closeness to their OFW Parent/s When Grouped by the Profile Variables

Mean Range Description: 0.00-1.00 (Low Closeness); 1.01-1.50 (Somewhat Close); 1.51-2.00 (Moderately Close); 2.01-3.00 (Very Close).

The respondents’ level of closeness to their OFW Mother and Father when they are grouped according to sex was measured which revealed no significant difference (t=-.575; p>0.05) between the two groups in terms of their level of closeness to their OFW Mother. There was no significant difference (t=-.273; p>0.05) between the two groups in terms of their level of closeness to their OFW Father. This implies that sex is not a factor to differentiate the level of closeness of the respondents to their OFW parents. The findings show that regardless of the sex of the child, they are close to their OFW parents, feel moderately responsible for their parents, and do not feel controlled by their father. This means that both sons and daughters of OFWs are able to maintain a sense of emotional connection with their OFW parent. The findings are consistent with the observations of Aguilar (2021) who found that children of OFWs are generally close to their parent and equally attempt to maintain a sense of closeness.

There were also no significant differences (F=.453; p>0.05) between and among the four groups of birth order in terms of their level of closeness to their OFW Father. This means that all groups have statistically the same level of closeness and birth order is not a factor to identify the differences on the respondents’ closeness to their OFW parents. The results mean that the parental closeness, responsibility, and parental closeness of children of OFWs does not differ when grouped by birth order. It negates the findings Liu and Jiang (2021) who found that only children were significantly closer than first born children.

The findings also show that children whose parents had been abroad for less than 10 years, (M=1.75; SD=0.33), 11 to 20 years (M=1.65; SD=0.46) and more than 20 years (M=1.78; SD=0.42) were moderately close to their mothers. There were also no significant differences (F=.287; p>0.05) between and among the three groups in terms of their level of closeness to their OFW Father. This means that all groups have statistically the same level of closeness and number of years abroad is not a factor to identify the differences on the respondents’ closeness to their OFW parents. This implies that regardless of the number of years that the OFW parent was separated from their child, the children of OFWs feel a similar level of closeness with their parent/s. The results generally show that maternal and paternal closeness was highest when the time of duration was in the shortest range. This agrees with the findings of Chen et al. (2023) who observed that as the duration of separation increases, parent-child closeness tends to suffer.

Section 5. The Significant Relationship of Closeness and Study Attitudes and Methods

This section presents the relationship between parent-child closeness and study attitudes and methods.

Table 8. Relationship Between the Respondents’ Level of Closeness to Their OFW Parent and Their Level of Study Attitudes and Methods

Qualitative Description for Pearson r

+0.80 – +0.99=Very High Correlation, +0.60 – +0.79=Moderately High Correlation, +0.40 – +0.59=High Correlation, +0.20 – +0.39=Moderately Low Correlation, +0.01 – +0.19=Very Low Correlation (***p<0.001, *p<0.05, ns – not significant)

Legend: AI- Academic Interest; ADC- Academic Drive-Conformity; SM- Study Methods; LSA-Study Anxiety; LM-Manipulation; LATA- Alienation Towards Authority

Pearson’s r-correlation results revealed a significant relationship between the students’ academic interest (r=0.431; p<0.001) and maternal regard. There is a high positive correlation between maternal regard and academic interest, this means that the two variables are related with each other, the more that the child positively regards their mother, there is a tendency that they would also become more interested in their academics.  These findings are supported by the observations of Abenir (2019) who notes that the absence of a mother tends to be a strong incentive for children of OFWs to stay in school and study hard. The results also showed a significant relationship between the students’ academic drive-conformity (r=0384; p<0.001) and maternal regard. Specifically, the two variables have a moderately low positive correlation. This means that the more that a child positively regards their OFW mother, there is a moderately low association that their academic drive-conformity would also increase. This implies that the higher the students’ regard to their OFW mother, the higher is their level of academic drive-conformity, and vice versa. Similarly, there was a moderately low positive significant relationship between the students’ study methods (r=0.270; p<0.05) and maternal regard, implying that the higher their level of maternal regard, the higher is their level of study methods, and vice versa. The result corroborates the findings of Lerner and Grolnick (2019), wherein they observed that when the child feel supported and have a positive affect toward their mother, the child is better able to be involved in school and in cognitive involvement. In relation to the inverse relationship of maternal responsibility and academic interest, this could be due to the changing interests of the children of OFWs from their academics towards household tasks and caregiving for younger siblings. Abenir (2019) points out that the migration of the mother prompts that husband to shift from a provider to a nurturer, however the father often passes the role to the eldest daughter. This shift in the daughter´s role adversely affects their school performance as caring for their siblings becomes their priority.

A possible reason for the lack of significant relationships in the study attitudes and methods of children of OFWs and their paternal closeness could be the difference in the point of view towards migrant mothers and migrant fathers. For Abenir (2019), children are more likely to view migrant fathers as providing for their family, whereas migrant mothers are seen as trying to escape poverty. Chung et al. (2019) mentions that the impact of one parent cannot be separated from the impact of the other parent as both influence each other, and influence how the child perceives parenting.

CONCLUSIONS

The family is the basic unit of society, changes in the family structure affect different aspects of a child’s development. Adult children of OFWs in Saint Mary’s University are moderately close to their OFW mother, and very close to their OFW father. This finding was not found to differ according to the child’s sex, birth order, or the number of years that the parent spent abroad. The respondents were generally highly interested in their academics, but were unable to put a great deal of effort into their schoolwork. Despite this, the respondents had been able to develop study habits that allow them to complete assignments effectively, take exams successively, and efficiently use their study time. The respondents were also generally concerned about their academic performance and may lack confidence in their activities, they may tend to attempt to obtain special treatment from their teachers or classmates to get higher grades. In addition, the respondents may struggle with accepting school authority, and perceive teachers as disciplinarians rather than as supporters. With this, it can be concluded that children of OFWs can cope with their studies but may be struggling in dealing with their academic struggles. They can develop time management skills that assist them in balancing their home and school duties. Hence, the researchers conclude that the presence of a positive relationship between the mother and child is essential for how they perceive academic work and finish it effectively.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Although this research showed good results, some limitations could be mitigated in future research. First, the study was limited in the number and distribution of participants, hence, it is recommended that future researchers would also study children whose parents are both OFWs, as the present researchers were not able to do so due to the limited number of students whose parents are both OFWs. Second, it is also recommended for future researchers to further study the dimensions of study attitudes and methods, for factors that could contribute to the development of high or low scores among children of OFWs. Third, future researchers are encouraged to do a comparative study on the relationship of parent child closeness and study attitudes and methods of children of OFWs, and non-children of OFWs. Lastly, it is recommended that future researchers would also examine the point of view of the OFW parent, and the point of view of children of OFWs of different ages, as the present study only examined the point of view of the adult child.

REFERENCES

1. Abenir, M. A. (2019). Towards enhancing capabilities of children of Overseas Filipino Workers to sustain resilience and mitigate vulnerabilities Towards enhancing capabilities of children of Overseas Filipino Workers to sustain resilience and mitigate vulnerabilities. Philippine Journal of Social Development 2019 , 12. https://cswcd.upd.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/PJSD-12-2019_MADA_Capabilities-of-Children.pdf
2. Aguilar, M. (2020). Technology-mediated parenting: Narratives of Left behind Adolescent Children of Overseas Filipino Workers. Journal of Asian Review of Public Affairs and Policy, 5(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.222.99/arpap/2020.65
3.  Adams, R. E., Laursen, B., & Wilder, D. (2001). Characteristics of closeness in adolescent romantic relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 24(3), 353–363. https://doi.org/10.1006/jado.2000.0402
4. Botezat, A. (2018, November 30). Parental migration and the children left… BOLD; BOLD. https://bold.expert/parental-migration-and-the-children-left-behind/
5.  Branje, S. (2018). Development of Parent-Adolescent Relationships: Conflict Interactions as a Mechanism of Change. Child Development Perspectives, 12(3), 171–176. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12278
6.  Chen, G. (2022, May 20). Parental Involvement is Key to Student Success | PublicSchoolReview.com. Public School Review. https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/parental-involvement-is-key-to-student-success#:~:text=Parental%20involvement%20not%20only%20enhances%20academic%20 performance%2C%20but
7.  Chen, N., Zhao, K.-Y., Chen, I-Hua., & Liu, G. (2023). The influence of parent–child relationships on the learning adaptability of left-behind children: the mediating role of peer attachment and the moderating role of separation duration. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1108993
8.  Chung, G., Phillips, J., Jensen, T. M., & Lanier, P. (2019). Parental Involvement and Adolescents’ Academic Achievement: Latent Profiles of Mother and Father Warmth as a Moderating Influence. Family Process, 59(2), 772–788. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12450
9.  Cleofas, J. V., Eusebio, Ma. C. SC., & Pacudan, E. J. P. (2021). Anxious, Apart, and Attentive: A Qualitative Case Study of Overseas Filipino Workers’ Families in the time of COVID-19. The Family Journal, 106648072110063. https://doi.org/10.1177/10664807211006339
10.   Delima, K. R. M. (2022). CHALLENGES OF THE LEFT-BEHIND ADOLESCENT CHILDREN OF THE OVERSEAS FILIPINO WORKERS.
11.  Distor, J. M. S., & Campos, R. M. (2021). The Perspectives of Senior High School Students with Overseas Filipino Worker Parents. PSYCHOLOGY and EDUCATION, 58(4), 1639–1644. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/John-Distor/publication/363586026 The Perspectives of Senior High School Students with Overseas Filipino Worker Parents/links/63240e18071ea12e36389871/The-Perspectives-of-Senior-High-School-Students-with-Overseas-Filipino-Worker-Parents.pdf
12.  Dominguez, G. B., & Hall, B. J. (2022). The health status and related interventions for children left behind due to parental migration in the Philippines: A scoping review. The Lancet Regional Health – Western Pacific, 28, 100566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanwpc.2022.100566
13.  Estonanto, A. J. J. (2018). Impact of Math Anxiety on Academic Performance in Pre-Calculus of Senior High School. Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.7828/ljher.v13i2.1059
14. Lerner, R. E., & Grolnick, W. S. (2019). Maternal involvement and children’s academic motivation and achievement: The roles of maternal autonomy support and children’s affect. Motivation and Emotion, 44(3), 373–388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09813-6
15.  Liu, Y., & Jiang, Q. (2021). Who Benefits From Being an Only Child? A Study of Parent-Child Relationship Among Chinese Junior High School Students. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.608995
16.  Lobos, J., Juliata, B., & Peñalba, E. (2019). Consequences of Parental Absence due to Migration: A Qualitative Inquiry into Adolescent Students’ Well-being. Multi-Disciplinary Research Journal of Bulacan State University – Meneses Campus, 8. https://osf.io/72qct/download
17.  Mendoza, I. F. C. (2022, November 7). Group: Children of OFWs vulnerable to survival, human rights issues. SUNSTAR. https://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/1945415/davao/local-news/group-children-of-ofws-vulnerable-to-survival-human-rights-issues#:~:text=A%20number%20of%20these%20issues
18. OWWA. (2022, August 6). OWWA Launches OFW Children’s Circle to Support Kids of OFWs. OWWA Member. https://owwamember.com/ofw-childrens-circle/
19. Pajarillo-Aquino, I. (2019). CHILDREN OF OVERSEAS FILIPINO WORKERS AND THEIR ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE. Sg.docs.wps.com. https://sg.docs.wps.com/l/sIJeM6MhG94uyoAY?sa=03&st=0t&v=v2
20.  Peisah, C., Brodaty, H., Luscombe, G., Kruk, J., & Anstey, K. (1999). The Parent Adult-Child Relationship Questionnaire (PACQ): The assessment of the relationship of adult children to their parents. Aging & Mental Health, 3(1), 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607869956415
21. Ramos, R. (2020). Long Distance Parenting Of Overseas Filipino Workers (Ofws) Its Impact To The Academic Performance Of Pupils In Bayabasan Elementary School Nasugbu, Batangas: Input To An Action Plan. INSTABRIGHT E-GAZETTE, 2(1). https://uploads.strikinglycdn.com/files/6aac0755-245c-4c1e-bbea-1a34e743a8ff/RAMOS%20-%20PUBLISHED%20ARTICLE.pdf
22. Sudderth, A. (2022, April 12). The Relationship Between Parental and Family Involvement and Student Success. Rethink Together. https://xqsuperschool.org/rethinktogether/relationship-between-parental-and-family-involvement-and-academic-achievement/#:~:text=The%20effects%20of%20parental%20involvement
23.  Teng, J. C. C., Hilario, A. D. F., Sauler, L. M. A., Reyes, Ma. C. M. D. L., & Arcinas, M. (2021). Parentification Experiences of Filipino Young Professional Daughters During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Studies, 3(4), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.32996/jhsss.2021.3.4.3
24. Yu, E. A., & Chang, E. C. (2018). Parent-Child Closeness and Parents’ Meaning in Life in Personal Meaning in Life. The Family Journal, 26(3), 300–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480718795122