Police Corruption in the Transport Corridors and Its Implications on Regional Trade Integration in West and East Africa

Police Corruption in the Transport Corridors and Its Implications on Regional Trade Integration in West and East Africa

Mpolai Mpho Tšehlo

Pan African University Institute of Governance Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Yaoundé II Cameroon.

DOI : https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8110072

Received: 31 October 2024; Accepted: 05 November 2024; Published: 03 December 2024

ABSTRACT

This study examines the issue of police corruption within transport corridors in West and East Africa and its implications for regional trade integration. As African nations strive for economic cooperation through initiatives such as the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), systemic corruption undermines these efforts, leading to trade and economic development inefficiencies. The research highlights the entrenched nature of corruption in law enforcement, characterised by bribery and extortion, which contribute to increased transportation costs and hinder the movement of people, goods and services. The analysis considers the broader impacts of corruption on governance, accountability, and the overall economic climate in Sub-Saharan Africa. Investigating the challenges truck drivers face due to illegal checkpoints and bureaucratic obstacles emphasises the need for well-established policy reforms and institutional mechanisms to combat police corruption. In addition, addressing police corruption is important for achieving successful regional integration and enhancing intra-African trade.

Keywords- Police corruption, Regional Trade Integration, Transport Corridors, intra-African trade, free movement.

INTRODUCTION

Regional integration in Africa has historically been perceived as a key approach to tackling the economic, social, and political challenges of fragmented small economies through regional cooperation (Acheampong and Ortsin, 2019; Black et al., 2020; Kapaya, 2020). Following their independence, these nations established regulatory frameworks to oversee their cooperation in various areas of common interest. Regional groupings were therefore established to facilitate trade, the free movement of people and capital, and the harmonisation of policies across national boundaries (Hartzenberg, 2011). This initiative aimed to emulate what is now recognised as the European Union style of integration, hoping to achieve similar milestones. Nonetheless, the process of African integration has rather followed a different path. This results from numerous challenges, including a lack of complementarity among member nations, unequal distribution of resources, varying policy preferences, and inherent corruption within the states (Hartzenberg, 2011).

Corruption remains a deeply entrenched and widespread issue throughout African states. The continent hosts the lowest-ranking states in global corruption indices (Osei‐Assibey et al., 2017; Sassi and Ali, 2017). Specifically, Sub-Saharan Africa has an average Corruption Perceptions Index score of 32, reflecting a high prevalence of corruption, especially within public sectors such as law enforcement (Transparency International, 2023). This situation suggests that numerous governance issues persist within these states’ political and administrative systems, such as a lack of transparency and accountability. The police is one sector that remains at the top of the most corrupt institutions of the state. Hope Sr (2018) illustrates that within police forces in Africa, corruption represents a breakdown in governance, where key institutions tasked with maintaining ethical standards and upholding the rule of law are compromised and infiltrated by corrupt individuals and networks for personal gains. Regarding procedure, accountability refers to the adequacy of processes related to executing tasks, particularly concerning accounting information systems, management information systems, and administrative practices (Khotami, 2017). In most African countries, however, these processes have been compromised by poor legal and institutional mechanisms to control corruption (Warf, 2017).

The detrimental effects of corruption are extensively documented and have influenced economic development, foreign investments, and the general standard of governance. The dynamics of grand corruption, which affects the implementation of development policies, is evident in many African states. In addition to significant corruption in large-scale public projects, there is a pervasive issue of petty corruption that affects everyday citizens and businesses, particularly involving traffic police officers and customs officials (Foltz and Li, 2023). Although petty corruption may be conducted on a limited scale by a few individuals, Warf (2017) explains its cumulative impact on society as profound. Corruption within law enforcement agencies throughout Africa takes numerous forms, such as bribery, extortion, and misuse of authority amongst other forms. According to Oki (2016), in West Africa, the primary factors contributing to elevated transportation costs include bribery, bureaucratic holdups, random checkpoints, excessive taxation, inefficient trading processes, and inadequate infrastructure. These behaviours significantly hinder efforts toward regional collaboration.

Statement of the Problem

In 2021, the African Union introduced the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) (Luo, 2022). One of the primary objectives of the AfCFTA is to enhance intra-African trade by aligning and coordinating trade liberalization and facilitation policies across all Regional Economic Communities (RECs). This initiative has encouraged collaborative efforts in business and market developments that will benefit traders, especially the Small, Micro, and Medium Enterprises (SMMEs) that are dominant in African economies. The cooperation between states allows them to take advantage of broader markets and more diverse value chains. The African Regional Integration Index (ARII), therefore, evaluates the level of integration through five specific dimensions: trade integration, productive integration, macroeconomic integration, infrastructural integration, and the free movement of people (African Regional Integration Index, 2024). However, progress on this front remains uneven owing to various political, economic and social challenges across the continent. For instance, police corruption emerges as one of the major obstacles experienced by truck drivers who transport goods within African transport corridors, posing a serious problem to trade. A myriad of illegal checkpoints established by police officers have caused unnecessary delays and increased the cost of doing business across African borders.

While these actions have been rationalized by concerns over human trafficking, theft, and smuggling, the prevalence of police corruption along the transport corridors and borders in Africa has markedly increased over the years, creating an atmosphere of fear, uncertainty, and distrust among private enterprises and individuals attempting to partake in cross-border transactions (Steck, 2021). This situation complicates efforts to the removal of the tariff and non-tariff barriers and the adoption of the free movement of business persons, which is essential for facilitating seamless intra-African trade. For this reason, this article aims to explore the question: what are the implications of police corruption on regional trade integration in Africa?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Regional integration is a multifaceted process in which geographically proximate countries intensify their engagement across economic, security, political, or socio-cultural realms through shared cross-border governance structures (World Bank, 2024; Mashimbye, 2024). In economic terms, regional integration entails the reduction or elimination of barriers to trade and investment among participating countries. When this happens, the participating member states expect to yield greater benefits than they would otherwise not attain through bilateral trade relations. As Tuluy (2016) explains, Africa has seen successful large-scale efforts by governments and organizations to cooperate and collaborate on regional public goods, where joint and coordinated action has brought benefits to all participating countries. The establishment of various trade mechanisms, such as preferential trade areas, customs unions, or common markets can facilitate regional economic integration. These arrangements enable the reduction or elimination of tariff and non-tariff barriers, allowing for greater trade and investment among participating countries.

In a preferential trade area, member states have agreed to apply reduced tariff rates on trade among themselves while maintaining their internal tariff structures for imports from non-member countries (Bankole and Oladapo, 2019). This means that goods originating from member states of the preferential trade area receive more favourable treatment than goods coming from non-member countries. The Southern Africa Customs Union, which was established in 1910, imposes Most Favoured Nation tariff rates on all products entering the customs union, except for those originating from the external regional groupings with which it has formed partnerships (Sabaruddin, 2022; Chidede, 2018). This means no additional charges can be imposed because a well-established tariff regime is in place. A common market represents an even deeper level of regional integration, where not only trade barriers are eliminated, but there is also free movement of the factors of production such as capital, services, labour, and goods among the member states (Southern African Development Community, 2020).

Regional integration in Africa has, therefore, been dominated by economic activities through establishing trade facilitation mechanisms that have enabled their member states to trade. For instance, regional organizations, such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Common Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the East African Community (EAC), have made notable progress in reducing tariffs and facilitating the free movement (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2023). Several transport corridors facilitate trade integration in Africa. Cargo trucks, freight shipments and other types of transport have successfully and reliably operated along complex trade routes and transport corridors in integrated cross-border markets (Tuluy, 2016). This continues to happen despite the fragmented infrastructure and underdeveloped roads that make it difficult to reach some areas with ease. Some drivers experience punctures, getting stuck in the mud, attacks by militia and theft. It is in some of these instances that the police take advantage on top of the operations initiated by themselves. Despite ongoing efforts to curb corruption within police forces and enforce legal compliance among officers in developing nations, the pervasive misuse of police authority remains a prevalent issue in many of these contexts (Adisa et al., 2020). The next section explores the cases of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the East African Community (EAC).

ECOWAS

Over the past three decades, West Africa has experienced periods of trade liberalization, characterized by establishing a common market and free trade area within the region (Lebrand, 2021). On the other hand, the African Union (2019) indicates that ECOWAS operates as a common market that focuses on harmonizing taxes, and a customs union that has instituted a shared external tariff. However, for several scholars, reality differs from theory. For Lebrand (2021), there is a strong presence of non-tariff barriers and border frictions in ECOWAS. The high rate of informal practices by the police adds to the already existing barriers to integration. For instance, Foltz and Li (2023) report that drivers along the major highway corridors in West Africa often face delays and checkpoints where officials detain them and demand bribe payments to continue their journeys. These delays are against the free movement of business persons as they cost drivers resources such as time and money because it takes longer to cover the distances and return to deports to collect more goods to transport to other regions. Findings from a study on border cities in West Africa revealed that between Mali, Burkina and Côte d’Ivoire, or in the Futa Jalon, the population that could be reached decreased by 25% because of wait times significantly at borders (Walther, 2019).

For regional integration to be successful, it is essential to have a strong transport and communication infrastructure and suitable institutions (Ncube et al., 2015). ECOWAS has tried to enforce this through certain measures. For example, according to Business Ghana (2015), the policemen along the ECOWAS transit corridors were directed to cease checks on transit cargo trucks by the Police Administration Authority. This was an effort to improve the free movement of goods and services while eliminating certain barriers. However, as Table I indicates, many firms still experience problems with public officials in different cities in West Africa. This signifies weaknesses in enforcing individual states’ and regional organisations’ regulatory frameworks. It indicates that although the member states ratified their membership to the regional body, there is a lack of political will and resistance to enforce some regulations. The benefits of police corruption seem to outweigh the costs of smooth economic operations because corruption in Africa is often part of larger syndicates. This is where patron-client relations exist. Police, therefore, introduce their undocumented and informal tariff barriers, causing significant regional losses.

The Economic Community of West African States Protocol on the Fight Against Corruption (2001) establishes a framework to address corruption within member states. Article 4 emphasises that each State Party must adopt measures to ensure control over criminal offences defined in the protocol, which is crucial for tackling corruption that occurs within their territories. This provision allows states to prosecute corrupt acts committed by public officials, including police officers, who solicit or accept bribes in exchange for facilitating or ignoring illegal activities along transport corridors. Article 6 specifically outlines acts of corruption, such as public officials demanding or accepting valuable objects in return for actions related to their duties. This directly relates to police corruption in transport corridors, where officers may engage in corrupt practices to expedite or obstruct the movement of goods and people.

Furthermore, Article 18 calls for the harmonization of national legislation among State Parties to ensure that anti-corruption laws are consistent and effective across the region. This harmonization is essential for combating police corruption, as it
facilitates cooperation and information sharing between countries, enabling more effective cross-border enforcement actions against corrupt practices. However, many member states are still characterised by poor institutional frameworks that cannot adequately allow the implementation of policies that will ease the movement of persons and products within the sub-region (Oshota and Wahab, 2022).

Table I: The Proportion of Firms Experiencing Problems with Public Officials in 2018 (%)

EAC

The East African Community (EAC) has been identified as the most integrated REC, as measured by the Africa Regional Integration Index (ARII) (GIZ, 2022; East African Community, 2020). It has reached the level of a customs union, which indicates the adoption of a common external tariff against non-member states. Sabuni and Benjamin (2014) and Rauschendorfer and Twum (2022) mention that most goods and services in a customs union are traded duty-free between the member states and have a common external tariff on third parties. Despite this milestone, however, some challenges that hinder progress in trade continue to persist. Luo, 2022 reports that while various customs and trade facilitation measures and tax-like measures have been resolved in the EAC, various obstacles impede smooth trade in the region. For instance, improvements have been implemented in the transport corridors to facilitate the smooth passage of trucks. However, transit time is greatly affected by stoppages along the corridors for reasons such as police checks, company checks, road conditions, customs checks and weighbridges (Northern Corridor Transit and Transport Coordination Authority, 2020). It is at these stops that corruption by police mostly takes place. Notably, citizens link corruption in the police primarily to traffic-related issues despite the existence of other documented forms of corruption within the Service. (Transparency International Kenya, 2018).

Odanga (2016) reported that certain senior police officers intimidate their subordinates to force them into accepting bribes from motorists and other road users. Your critique makes a valid point about the systemic nature of corruption. This indicates that the collection of bribes is part of a larger syndicate, where junior officers are compelled to hand over their earnings to senior officials to retain their positions. This dynamic not only perpetuates corruption within the police force but also creates a culture of fear and compliance, undermining the integrity of law enforcement as a whole. The East African Bribery Index (2017) reported the regional scores in the likelihood of encountering bribery in East Africa, as shown in Table II. As is the case with ECOWAS, police corruption also adds more challenges to the already existing barriers to trade in the EAC, although Rwanda stands out with a lower corruption score. This suggests that Rwanda has made recognisable efforts to regulate police behaviour and implement effective anti-corruption measures.

The East African Community (EAC) works to combat corruption through its EAC Protocol on Good Governance 2022. This protocol outlines specific measures that partner states must implement to ensure that revenue collection is efficient, transparent, and accessible to everyone in the community. It, therefore, aims to promote fairness and accountability in financial processes which greatly impact regional trade. Moreover, the protocol highlights the vital role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in fighting corruption and improving public service delivery. Integrating ICT can streamline operations, which renders them more efficient and reduces the chances of corrupt practices. For instance, using digital platforms for tax payments and public fines decreases the need for face-to-face interactions, which often leads to bribery. Moreover, ICT can enhance data collection and analysis, allowing

governments to monitor revenue flows better and identify any irregularities. Furthermore, the EAC has established a One Stop Border Post (OSBP) that utilises a single window, allowing trade and transportation stakeholders to submit standardised information and documents at a single entry point to meet all regulatory requirements for imports, exports, and transit (Barack, 2021). This kind of arrangement of border points contributes to the growth of national, regional, and international economies by enhancing trade and the free movement of people which are vital for Africa’s regional economic integration (Tralac, 2017).

Table II: Likelihood of Encountering Bribery in East Africa – Regional score

Source: The East African Bribery Index 2017

METHODOLOGY

The study utilised secondary data collected between 2015 and 2024, presented in Table III, to trace the reported incidents of police corruption in the transport corridors. The data was used to explain the implications of police corruption on regional trade integration in West and East Africa. Several cases were selected across East and West Africa. The focus was on the year in which the incidents happened, the types of transporters of goods and services involved, and the corridors and countries involved. The data was
collected from several published articles and media reports.

Police Corruption and its Impact on African Trade Integration

The issue of police corruption at the checkpoints initiated along the transport corridors poses a significant obstacle to regional economic integration in West and East Africa. This practice, characterised by extortion and bribery, imposes substantial business costs, hindering trade and investment. In their study, Tazebew and Kefale (2021) reveal that how economic interactions and trade relationships are structured within border regions is directly influenced by the unique characteristics underlying these borderland spaces. This shows the need for a strong anti-corruption strategy, not just in the police force but across the wider system of integrated governance structures.
One of the most immediate consequences of police corruption is the increased cost of doing business. Bribery payments directly inflate transportation costs, while delays caused by checkpoints lead to additional expenses, such as increased fuel consumption, labour costs, and opportunity costs (Velasquez, 2010). These elevated costs result in higher prices for goods and services, which consumers subsequently bear.

Data Presentation

Table III: Summary of selected cases of truck drivers’ incidents with police between 2015 and 2024

Police Corruption and its Impact on African Trade Integration

The issue of police corruption at the checkpoints initiated along the transport corridors poses a significant obstacle to regional economic integration in West and East Africa. This practice, characterised by extortion and bribery, imposes substantial business costs, hindering trade and investment. In their study, Tazebew and Kefale (2021) reveal that how economic interactions and trade relationships are structured within border regions is directly influenced by the unique characteristics underlying these borderland spaces. This shows the need for a strong anti-corruption strategy, not just in the police force but across the wider system of integrated governance structures.

One of the most immediate consequences of police corruption is the increased cost of doing business. Bribery payments directly inflate transportation costs, while delays caused by checkpoints lead to additional expenses, such as increased fuel consumption, labour costs, and opportunity costs (Velasquez, 2010). These elevated costs result in higher prices for goods and services, which consumers subsequently bear.

This harms regional trade, as the increased costs make goods less competitive in the regional market, hindering the flow of trade and integration across borders. Furthermore, uncertainties due to delays make it challenging for businesses to plan and manage their supply chains efficiently (Pretorius et al., 2022). As a result, businesses have opted for trade outside of Africa, especially with countries like China. This has rendered regional economic integration in Africa more challenging.

Another point is that, when police corruption is prevalent, it can lead to inconsistent enforcement of trade regulations and tariffs, further complicating cross-border transactions and reducing the effectiveness of integration policies. Gammadigbé (2021) mentions that African policymakers and analysts view regional integration as a path for raising the level of intra-regional trade and stimulating economic development. It is therefore important to harmonise cross-border management policies to help businesses navigate the bureaucratic complexities and unprecedented barriers.

CONCLUSION

Police corruption is one of the most pervasive contributing factors to barriers to intra-African trade. Undermining the efficiency of cross-border transactions and inflating costs for businesses hampers regional economic growth and drives companies to seek opportunities outside the continent, which has been the case in Africa for a long time. While we cannot attribute the poor performance of intra-African trade to police corruption only, countries must develop mechanisms to jointly regulate police work, especially in busy transport corridors, to avoid increased operational costs. For this reason, effective measures to combat police corruption are vital for enhancing a more integrated and competitive African market.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Civil Society is an important mechanism for controlling corruption, especially in state activities. Empowering civil society in monitoring transport corridors can provide an additional layer of accountability. These organisations can help document incidents of corruption, advocate for policy changes, and raise public awareness about the negative impacts of police corruption on trade and economic development.

Strengthen Legal Frameworks

Governments should strengthen the legal frameworks governing transport and trade. This includes enforcing stricter penalties for corrupt practices among law enforcement officials and ensuring that there are clear channels for reporting corruption without fear of retaliation. Establishing independent oversight bodies can further enhance accountability in enforcement agencies.

Transparency Through Technology

Technology can enhance transparency in police operations. Implementing digital cargo tracking systems can allow for real-time monitoring of shipments as they move through various checkpoints. This transparency can deter corrupt practices by making identifying irregularities or delays caused by extortion attempts easier. Additionally, mobile applications could be developed for truck drivers to report incidents of bribery directly to authorities.

Single-Window System

The single-window approach, as developed by the East African Community (EAC), should be expanded and adopted across all relevant regions. This system allows trade actors to submit standardized information and documents through a single entry point, fulfilling all regulatory requirements for imports, exports, and transit. By simplifying administrative processes, this approach minimizes opportunities for corrupt practices at multiple checkpoints, thus streamlining trade.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author acknowledges the Pan African University for contributing the knowledge and skills used to compile this work.

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