The Effectiveness of Imagery Training on Improving the Overhead Serve Skill Level of MSSD Mersing Volleyball Athletes

The Effectiveness of Imagery Training on Improving the Overhead Serve Skill Level of MSSD Mersing Volleyball Athletes

Lee Wenjun¹, Wan Ahmad Munsif Wan Pa^2*

^1,2Faculty of Education, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

*Corresponding author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.90300041

Received: 14 February 2025; Accepted: 24 February 2025; Published: 27 March 2025

ABSTRACT

In this era of globalization, the mental capability and stress resilience of Malaysian athletes remain relatively low. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of imagery training in enhancing the overhead serve skill level among athletes of the Mersing District School Sports Council (MSSD). This quasi-experimental study involved two groups of athletes: the control group and the experimental group. Each group consisted of 15 athletes of different genders. The Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised (MIQ-R), a revision of the original MIQ (Butler et al., 2012), was used to assess the athletes’ visual and kinesthetic movement imagery abilities. The questionnaire consists of eight items, with four visual and four kinesthetic items for each movement. This study demonstrates significant effectiveness in improving an athlete’s overhead serve skill in volleyball. The AAPERD Serving Test was used to assess the researchers’ ability to serve the ball accurately and consistently. A Paired T-Test was conducted to compare the improvement in overhead serve skill levels between pre- and post-tests. The overall comparison revealed an average score difference (M), standard deviation (SD), and t-test value between the pre- and post-test of M = 28.04, SD = 0.543, and t = 24.353. These values indicate a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test, with p < 0.001, confirming statistical significance. Imagery training showed a substantial impact in enhancing overhead serve skills in volleyball. Coaches or school volleyball team advisors may incorporate imagery training into athletes’ daily training sessions to improve their mental strength and stress resilience.

Keywords: Imagery Training, Skill, Overhead Serve, Volleyball

INTRODUCTION

In the modern era of competitive sports, mental preparedness is as crucial as physical training. Volleyball, like many other sports, demands not only technical proficiency but also cognitive skills such as focus, confidence, and stress resilience. One of the most essential yet challenging skills in volleyball is the overhead serve, which requires precise coordination, accuracy, and mental composure. To enhance this skill, athletes often rely on various training methods, including physical drills and psychological techniques. A study on the effectiveness of imagery training in enhancing overhead serve skills was conducted in Mersing. Historically, Malaysian university volleyball athletes have achieved success at national and international levels, frequently participating in competitions such as the ASEAN University Games (AUG), International Volleyball Championships, and the SEA Games. Imagery training (mental imagery training) is a technique used by athletes to improve their performance through visualization. According to Morris & Watt (2020), imagery training has been proven to enhance athletic performance across various sports. Studies show that combining physical and mental training results in greater performance improvements compared to physical training alone. Athletes who employ this technique during recovery tend to return to their original performance levels more quickly and with greater confidence (Mulder, 2021). Furthermore, imagery training can reduce anxiety and pressure during competitions. Research by Vealey & Greenleaf (2019) indicates that imagery training helps athletes mitigate anxiety and stress commonly associated with competitive events.

In Malaysia, imagery training has improved the performance of the national team. According to the Malaysian Sports Institute (2022), Malaysian national athletes in sports such as badminton, football, and hockey have adopted imagery training as part of their training programs, helping them compete better internationally. Additionally, the Malaysian Sports Institute (2020) has conducted seminars and workshops on the importance of imagery training, not only for elite athletes but also for coaches and sports officials. These efforts aim to increase awareness and implementation of this technique within the Malaysian sports community. At the Johor state level, imagery training programs have been introduced in school clubs. According to the Johor Sports Council (2021), imagery training has been incorporated into training programs in sports schools and local clubs across Johor, including football, hockey, and gymnastics. Moreover, the Johor State Government (2022) supports initiatives to raise awareness of imagery training through various programs and campaigns, including investments in coach training and educational material development.

Imagery training enables athletes to mentally visualize each technical movement required in volleyball, such as serving, spiking, and blocking. It enhances their focus and concentration on specific technical aspects of volleyball (Weinberg & Gould, 2019). Through imagery training, athletes can repeatedly rehearse correct movements mentally, helping refine and reinforce their technical skills, ultimately improving their accuracy and consistency during actual play (Cumming & Williams, 2012). By imagining each movement in detail, athletes can identify and correct technical errors, reducing mistakes in real games and enhancing performance consistency.

Furthermore, imagery training can reduce the risk of injury for athletes. Training that enhances motor coordination can help minimize injury risks. Good motor coordination ensures that movements are executed correctly, reducing strain on joints and muscles (Myer et al., 2011). Additionally, imagery training can improve multitasking ability. In volleyball, athletes often need to perform multiple tasks simultaneously, such as tracking the ball, adjusting body positioning, and preparing for the next movement. Good motor coordination helps athletes multitask more effectively, enhancing their overall performance in the game (Schorer & Wattie, 2015). Imagery training also strengthens an athlete’s self-confidence. Increased self-confidence provides many benefits, including improved performance, resilience under pressure, and higher motivation. High self-confidence helps athletes enhance their performance (Vealey & Chase, 2016). A strong sense of confidence also enables athletes to take the necessary risks to achieve victory.

Imagery training, a mental rehearsal technique that allows athletes to visualize movements before execution, has gained recognition as an effective method for skill enhancement in sports. Research suggests that combining mental imagery with physical training can significantly improve performance by reinforcing neural pathways associated with motor execution. In Malaysia, imagery training has been integrated into elite sports programs, demonstrating positive results across different disciplines, including badminton, football, and gymnastics. However, its effectiveness in volleyball, particularly in enhancing the overhead serve, remains underexplored.

This study aims to examine the impact of imagery training on the overhead serve skill level of volleyball athletes in the Mersing District School Sports Council (MSSD). By comparing an experimental group undergoing imagery training with a control group relying solely on conventional methods, this research seeks to determine whether mental visualization can lead to measurable improvements in serve accuracy and consistency. The findings of this study will provide valuable insights for coaches, trainers, and athletes on the role of mental training in optimizing sports performance.

LITERATURE REVIEW

PETTLEP Model

The PETTLEP model represents seven key elements for effective motor imagery: Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, and Perspective. Developed by Holmes & Collins (2001), it is widely accepted in research and practical sports applications.

Elements of the PETTLEP Model:

1. Physical: Involves replicating physical sensations during imagery, such as wearing similar sports attire or using the same equipment.
2. Environment: Imagery should take place in a setting similar to the actual sports environment.
3. Task: The imagined task should be specific to the sport or activity.
4. Timing: Imagery should match the real-time duration of the activity.
5. Learning: Imagery should be adapted to the athlete’s skill level.
6. Emotion: Integrating emotions experienced in real sports scenarios enhances imagery effectiveness.
7. Perspective: Imagery can be performed from an internal (first-person) or external (third-person) perspective.

The PETTLEP model has been widely used in various sports studies over the past decade to enhance athletic performance through imagery. According to Slimani & Bragazzi (2016), researchers have gathered data from multiple studies on the use of imagery in sports and analyzed its effectiveness based on PETTLEP elements. The findings of this study indicate that imagery incorporating PETTLEP elements is more effective in improving sports performance compared to other imagery techniques. This study confirms the importance of using a structured and specific approach like PETTLEP in imagery training.

Furthermore, according to the study by Callow & Fawkes (2013), swimmers in the experimental group showed improvements in swimming time and technique compared to the control group. This indicates that PETTLEP imagery can enhance athletic performance in water sports. The researchers divided the swimmers into an experimental group (PETTLEP imagery) and a control group. The experimental group underwent imagery sessions incorporating PETTLEP elements to assess the effectiveness of PETTLEP imagery in improving swimming performance.

Similarly, in the study by Wakefield & Smith (2011), the experimental group demonstrated a significant improvement in shooting accuracy compared to the control group. This suggests that PETTLEP imagery helps netball players enhance specific skills. The study involved netball players divided into an experimental group (PETTLEP imagery) and a control group. Imagery training was conducted in an environment resembling actual competition conditions, incorporating all PETTLEP elements to examine the effects of PETTLEP imagery on shooting performance in netball.

Imagery Training

Imagery training is a technique used by athletes to improve their performance through mental visualization. In the context of volleyball, imagery can be applied to refine techniques, strategies, and mental preparation before a match. According to the study by Cumming and Ramsey (2020), consistent use of imagery can enhance self-confidence and technical performance in volleyball. They emphasize the importance of structured imagery training tailored to individual needs. A significant improvement in technical performance was observed in players who underwent imagery training. The experimental group showed a substantial increase in serving, spiking, and blocking performance compared to the control group. Consequently, increased self-confidence can be linked to the visualization of positive situations and successful execution of techniques, which helps reduce anxiety and enhance focus during gameplay.

Additionally, Guillot and Collet (2018) stated that the use of motor imagery can enhance coordination and movement efficiency in volleyball. Their study found a significant improvement in spiking and blocking efficiency following intensive motor imagery sessions. Players in the experimental group demonstrated notable enhancements in both offensive and defensive performance. Furthermore, a study by Munroe-Chandler et al. (2021) evaluated the effects of imagery training on psychological strategies such as stress management and focus during matches. The study found that players who practiced imagery experienced reduced anxiety levels and improved concentration during competitions.

Moreover, a study by Smith et al. (2019) in the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology showed that an imagery program based on cognitive-behavioral theory could enhance serving and receiving performance in volleyball players. This program included visualization training of precise movements and tactical responses. Additionally, according to Weinberg et al. (2017), imagery training not only benefits individual players but also the team as a whole. By incorporating team-based strategic imagery, the overall performance of volleyball teams can be significantly improved. According to the research by Ghazali & Shabazi (2018), the impact of an eight-week imagery training program on the passing decision-making performance of young volleyball athletes. Participants in the experimental group engaged in regular imagery sessions focusing on game scenarios and decision-making processes. The results indicated a significant improvement in the quality of passing decisions among the experimental group compared to the control group, suggesting that imagery training can enhance cognitive aspects of volleyball performance.

Moreover, a study by Guillot & Collet (2017), a 25-year-old elite beach volleyball player incorporated imagery techniques to enhance serving performance. Over a four-month period, the athlete engaged in imagery exercises designed to establish routine, improve technique, and boost self-confidence. The intervention led to noticeable improvements in serve accuracy and consistency, highlighting the potential of personalized imagery training in refining specific volleyball skills. In addition, according to Rahimi and Abolghasemi (2022), this study examined the combined effects of self-talk and imagery on the learning and performance of volleyball serve skills among novice female players. Participants were divided into groups receiving self-talk training, imagery training, both interventions, or no intervention. Findings revealed that both self-talk and imagery, individually and combined, significantly enhanced serve performance and learning, with the combined intervention group showing the most substantial improvement. This underscores the efficacy of integrating psychological strategies to facilitate motor skill acquisition in volleyball.

Overhead Serve in Volleyball

Research on the skill level of the overhead serve in volleyball has been a key focus in the fields of sports science and physical education. According to Santos et al. (2019), proper technique in executing an overhead serve is critical to ensuring that the ball is delivered with the correct speed and direction. This study emphasizes the importance of body positioning, muscle strength, and hand-eye coordination in optimizing this technique. It highlights that players who can synchronize their eye movements with their hand movements during a serve show a significant improvement in serve accuracy.

According to research by Lin et al. (2020), the use of technology such as video analysis and motion sensors has helped players improve their serving techniques. The study found that players who used video analysis to review their movements demonstrated significant improvements in both serve accuracy and power. Players in the experimental group showed a notable increase in their serve accuracy compared to the control group. Video analysis helped them understand and refine their technique, while data from motion sensors provided quantitative feedback on their movements.

Furthermore, according to López et al. (2022), the development of training modules tailored to the skill level and individual needs of players has proven effective in improving overhead serve proficiency. These modules include technical training, tactical exercises, and holistic mental reinforcement. Additionally, research by Rodríguez et al. (2020) examined how psychological factors such as self-confidence and game pressure influence serve effectiveness. The findings indicated that players with higher self-confidence tend to have greater success in executing overhead serves, whereas high game pressure can reduce serve accuracy.

A study by Kim et al. (2021) investigated the impact of a specialized strength training program for the overhead serve. The findings showed that training programs focusing on shoulder strength and core stability could enhance volleyball players’ serve performance. In a study by Wong et al. (2018), it was found that a structured physical education approach and effective teaching methods could improve overhead serve skills among high school students. This study highlighted the importance of consistent training and proper coaching guidance.

Conceptual Framework of the Study                                          

Diagram 1. Conceptual Framework

Based on the conceptual framework above, this study focuses on athletes participating in MSSD volleyball in the Mersing district. The researchers selected two groups of athletes, dividing them into an experimental group and a control group, both groups have the same background with same gender, same age and same skill level of volleyball. The experimental group underwent an intervention involving imagery training, while the control group did not receive any intervention. Model PETTLEP into the imagery training which contains the element of physical, environment, task, timing, learning, emotion and perspective. This conceptual frame work help researcher to find out the effectiveness of imagery training on improving the volleyball overhead serve skill level.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design and Sampling

This study adopts a quasi-experimental design involving two groups of athletes: a control group and an experimental group. The objective of this research method is to collect and analyze data statistically. The quasi-experimental study was conducted using both a control group and an experimental group to compare the effects of imagery training on overhead serve performance in volleyball. This design allows for a clear comparison between the two groups to determine the impact of the intervention.

According to Zamri and Saidi (2021), researchers have stated that random sampling helps reduce sampling errors and enhances the reliability of study results. In this study, 30 MSSD athletes of different genders were selected. The athletes were divided into two groups: the experimental group (15 athletes) and the control group (15 athletes). The experimental group conducted imagery training in a school in the Mersing district, specifically at SJKC Chiao Ching. The athletes performed imagery training in a quiet and calm classroom environment to maximize its effects.

Data Collection

This study utilized a quasi-experimental research design to evaluate the effectiveness of imagery training in improving the overhead serve skill level of MSSD volleyball athletes in Mersing. A total of 30 athletes were selected and divided into two groups. These two groups was experimental group that underwent imagery training in addition to regular physical training and control group that received only conventional physical training without imagery techniques.

To assess the impact of imagery training, the study employed the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised (MIQ-R) to measure athletes’ visual and kinesthetic imagery abilities before and after the intervention. Additionally, the AAHPERD Serving Test was used to evaluate serve accuracy and consistency at both the pre-test and post-test stages. The intervention period lasted for eight weeks, with athletes in the experimental group engaging in daily 15–20-minute visualization sessions focusing on the correct execution of the overhead serve. At the end of the intervention, all participants completed the post-test to determine improvements in serve performance.

The study findings revealed a significant improvement in the serve performance of athletes who underwent imagery training. Based on the AAHPERD serving test results, the experimental group’s mean score increased from 36.89 to 64.93, while the control group showed only minimal improvement from 42.67 to 42.80. Serve accuracy in the experimental group improved significantly (M = 31.13), compared to the control group (M = 20.73). Based on the paired T-Test analysis, a significant difference (p < 0.001) was observed between pre-test and post-test scores in the experimental group, confirming the effectiveness of imagery training in enhancing overhead serve accuracy and consistency. The correlation between pre-test and post-test scores was low, indicating that performance improvements were primarily influenced by the intervention rather than initial skill levels.

The results confirm that imagery training has a substantial impact on volleyball serve performance, with athletes in the experimental group showing higher accuracy, consistency, and overall skill improvement compared to the control group. These findings support the integration of mental imagery techniques in training programs to enhance motor skills and competitive performance.

Instrument 1 – Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised (MIQ-R)

The Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised (MIQ-R) (Hall & Martin, 1997) was used to assess the athletes’ visual and kinesthetic movement imagery abilities. This version is an updated adaptation of the original MIQ (Butler et al., 2012) and consists of eight items, with four visual and four kinesthetic items for each movement. A Likert scale from 1 to 5 was used to measure kinesthetic and visual abilities, ranging from “very difficult to imagine/feel” (scale 1) to “very easy to imagine/feel” (scale 5). Data from the MIQ-R was collected before and after the imagery training program. By analyzing this data, researchers could assess the athletes’ perspectives on the effectiveness of imagery training and refine the program accordingly.

Instrument 2 – AAPERD Serving Test

The AAPERD Serving Test is a test designed to measure efficiency and skill in serving activities. This test is commonly used in physical education and sports training to assess an athlete’s ability to serve the ball accurately and consistently. Athletes were given a set number of attempts to serve the ball into designated target areas. Each attempt was evaluated based on the accuracy of the ball landing within the target area. Scores were assigned based on the number of successful serves reaching the designated target zone. Additionally, the assessment considered factors such as serve speed and technique.Athletes completed the AAPERD Serving Test before and after the imagery training program to determine performance improvements.

Diagram 2. AAPERD Serving Test

STUDY FINDINGS

Normality Test

The normality test conducted using the Shapiro-Wilk test indicated that all data in this study followed a normal distribution, except for the Pretest Consistency Scores of the Control Group and the Pretest Consistency Scores of the Experimental Group. Based on Table 1, the dataset analyzed using SPSS showed a p-value greater than 0.05, indicating that the data followed a normal distribution. Therefore, all collected data were deemed normally distributed, allowing for further analysis of the study findings.

Descriptive Analysis

Serving Performance

Table 2 presents the descriptive analysis of the AAHPERD test results for both the Control Group and Experimental Group in the post-test phase. The analysis includes mean (M), mode, median, and standard deviation (SD) values. Based on the data, the control group had a mean score of M = 42.80, representing the group’s average performance in the AAHPERD Test after the intervention. The mode was 42, indicating that 42 was the most frequently obtained score among participants. The median was 42.00, representing the middle value of the dataset. The standard deviation was SD = 3.932, indicating that the scores in the Control Group were consistent with minimal variation.

Meanwhile, in the Experimental Group, the mean score was M = 64.93, indicating a significant improvement in overall performance after the intervention. The mode was 65, showing that 65 was the most frequently obtained score in this group. The median was 65.00, representing the middle value of the dataset. The standard deviation was SD = 3.900, showing that the scores in the Experimental Group were highly consistent and almost equal to those of the Control Group.

The average performance of the experimental group (M = 64.93) was significantly higher than that of the control group (M = 42.80) in the post-test. The mode and median values were also higher for the experimental group (65) compared to the control group (42). Both groups exhibited similar levels of score variation, as seen in their standard deviation values (SD = 3.932 for the control group and SD = 3.900 for the experimental group).

This analysis indicates that the Experimental Group recorded a significant improvement in performance following the intervention, while the Control Group only showed a very slight increase (mean increased from 42.67 to 42.80). The substantial improvement in the Experimental Group’s scores suggests that the intervention was highly effective in enhancing their AAHPERD Test performance. Additionally, the high score consistency in both groups after the intervention (low standard deviation values) indicates that participants’ performance was uniform within each group.

Serve Accuracy

Table 3 presents the descriptive analysis of serve accuracy scores in the post-test for both the control group and experimental group. The parameters analyzed include mean (M), mode, median, and standard deviation (SD). The mean score for the control group was M = 20.73, indicating a small improvement in the average score compared to the pre-test (M = 19.00). The mode was 19, showing that 19 was the most frequently obtained score among participants in this group. The median was 21.00, slightly higher than the mode, representing the middle value of the dataset. The standard deviation was SD = 1.944, indicating that the scores in the control group were highly consistent with minimal variation.

Meanwhile, in the experimental group, the mean score was M = 31.13, reflecting a significant improvement compared to the pre-test (M = 18.07). The mode was 33, indicating that 33 was the most frequently obtained score in this group. The median was 31.00, which was very close to the mean, suggesting high consistency in scores. The standard deviation was SD = 2.031, showing slightly higher variation compared to the control group, but still within a low range.

The average performance of the experimental group (M = 31.13) was significantly higher than that of the control group (M = 20.73) after the intervention. The mode and median values were also considerably higher in the experimental group (Mode = 33; Median = 31.00) compared to the control group (Mode = 19; Median = 21.00). Although the standard deviation in the experimental group (SD = 2.031) was slightly higher than in the control group (SD = 1.944), both groups exhibited low variation, indicating consistent scoring within each group.

This analysis confirms that the intervention given to the experimental group led to a substantial improvement in serve accuracy performance. The increase in the mean score from pre-test (M = 18.07) to post-test (M = 31.13)

was significant and more pronounced compared to the small increase in the Control Group (M = 19.00 to M = 20.73). The higher mode and median values in the experimental group further support the finding that participants in this group achieved much better performance after the intervention.

Inferential Analysis

Question 1: Is there a significant difference in volleyball serve performance before and after undergoing imagery training among MSSD athletes in Mersing?

Improvement in Athletes’ Skill Level (Paired T-Test Analysis)

This table compares the pre-test and post-test consistency scores for the experimental group, including mean (M), standard deviation (SD), correlation between pre-test and post-test scores, significance value, and the computed t-test value. During the pre-test, the mean score (M) of participants was 18.80, with a standard deviation (SD) of 1.521, indicating low initial performance with relatively consistent scores. In the post-test, the mean score (M) significantly increased to 33.80, with a standard deviation (SD) of 2.704, reflecting a substantial improvement in performance after the intervention. However, the scores became slightly more variable compared to the pre-test, as indicated by the increased standard deviation.

The correlation between pre-test and post-test scores was moderate (r = 0.458), but the significance value (p = 0.086) indicates that this relationship is not statistically significant at p < 0.05. This suggests that the improvement in post-test scores was not directly predicted by pre-test scores. The computed t-value was t = -24.005, indicating a significant difference between pre-test and post-test scores. However, since the significance value (p = 0.086) is higher than 0.05, this difference does not reach statistical significance.

This analysis demonstrates a significant improvement in participants’ mean scores from pre-test (M = 18.80) to post-test (M = 33.80), confirming the effectiveness of the intervention in enhancing volleyball serve accuracy. In the table, p < .001 indicates that the difference between pre-test and post-test scores is highly statistically significant.

Table 5 compares the overall AAHPERD test scores in the experimental group before (pre-test) and after (post-test) the intervention. The parameters considered include mean (M), standard deviation (SD), correlation, significance value, and computed t-test value. During the pre-test, the mean overall score (M) was 36.887, with a standard deviation (SD) of 3.357. This indicates a moderate initial performance level, with relatively low score variation among participants. In the post-test, the mean overall score (M) significantly increased to 64.93, with a standard deviation (SD) of 3.900. This substantial increase in the mean score reflects the effectiveness of the intervention in improving participants’ performance. However, the slight increase in standard deviation suggests that scores became slightly more variable after the intervention.

The correlation between pre-test and post-test scores was r = 0.250, indicating a very weak relationship between initial performance and post-intervention performance. The significance value (p = 0.368) is higher than the standard significance threshold (p < 0.05), indicating that the relationship between pre-test and post-test scores is not statistically significant. The computed t-value was t = -24.353, reflecting a very large difference between pre-test and post-test scores. In this table, p < .001 confirms that the overall score difference between pre-test and post-test is highly statistically significant.

Question 2: Can Imagery Training Improve Volleyball Serve Accuracy Among MSSD Athletes in Mersing?

Improvement in Volleyball Serve Accuracy (Paired T-Test Analysis)

Table 6 presents a comparison of accuracy scores in the pre-test and post-test for the experimental group. The analysis includes mean (M), standard deviation (SD), correlation, significance value, and computed t-test value. During the pre-test, the mean serve accuracy score (M) was 18.07, indicating that before the intervention, participants had a relatively low level of serve accuracy, with most scoring around this average value. The standard deviation (SD) was 2.314, suggesting slight variation in participants’ performance. This indicates that most participants had similar scores, with only a few showing slightly different results from the average.

In the post-test, the mean accuracy score (M) increased significantly to 31.13, demonstrating a substantial improvement in participants’ performance after the intervention. The increase in the mean score by 13.06 points highlights that the intervention successfully enhanced participants’ overall performance. The post-test standard deviation (SD) was 2.031, which was lower than the pre-test SD, indicating that participants’ scores became more consistent after the intervention, with reduced differences between individual scores. In other words, participants’ performance became more uniform after undergoing the intervention.

The correlation between pre-test and post-test scores was r = 0.211, indicating a very weak relationship between the two sets of scores. This suggests that the scores obtained in the pre-test were not directly related to the scores in the post-test. In other words, participants who performed poorly in the pre-test did not necessarily remain at the same level after the intervention, and vice versa. The significance value (p = 0.451) was higher than the standard significance threshold (p < 0.05), indicating that the relationship between pre-test and post-test scores was not statistically significant. Therefore, the changes in scores between pre-test and post-test cannot be attributed solely to initial participant performance levels.

The computed t-value was t = -18.485, indicating a very large difference between pre-test and post-test scores. This high magnitude reflects the effectiveness of the intervention in improving participants’ performance. The significance value for the t-test was p < .001, which is far lower than the standard significance threshold (p < 0.05). This confirms that the difference in scores between the pre-test and post-test is highly statistically significant. Thus, the increase in scores after the intervention was not due to chance but objectively reflects the effectiveness of the intervention in improving volleyball serve accuracy.

DISCUSSION

Study Summary

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of imagery training in improving the overhead serve skill level of MSSD volleyball athletes in Mersing. A quasi-experimental design was employed, involving 30 athletes that divided into two groups. The intervention lasted for eight weeks, where the experimental group engaged in 15-20 minute daily imagery training sessions, focusing on mental visualization of the overhead serve. Performance was measured using the AAHPERD Serving Test and the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised (MIQ-R) before and after the intervention.

The experimental group showed a significant improvement in overhead serve accuracy and consistency, while the control group exhibited only minor improvements. The AAHPERD test scores increased notably in the experimental group (M = 64.93) compared to the control group (M = 42.80). Serve accuracy in the experimental group improved significantly (M = 31.13 vs. control group M = 20.73), confirming the role of mental imagery in skill enhancement. The Paired T-Test results showed a significant difference between pre-test and post-test scores in the experimental group (p < 0.001), validating the effectiveness of imagery training. The correlation analysis indicated that post-test performance was not solely dependent on initial skill levels, but rather on the imagery training intervention.

Athletes in the experimental group demonstrated higher confidence, focus, and reduced anxiety, suggesting that imagery training not only enhances physical performance but also strengthens mental resilience. These findings align with previous research, which suggests that imagery training improves motor coordination, decision-making, and performance under pressure. The study confirms that imagery training is a powerful tool for improving volleyball serve performance. It enhances not only technical skills but also mental preparedness, leading to better serve accuracy, consistency, and self-confidence. These findings emphasize the importance of integrating mental training alongside physical practice in sports coaching and athletic development.

Limitations

In this study, the researcher only collected data from volleyball athletes in the Mersing district, Johor. As a result, the analyzed data does not represent the entire population of volleyball athletes nationwide. This limitation may lead to a smaller dataset, reducing the generalizability of the findings.

Study Implications

Implications for Athletes

This study has demonstrated that imagery training can enhance volleyball players’ performance, particularly in overhead serving skills. Athletes develop a clearer understanding of movements, improve their focus and consistency, and effectively apply learned skills. For instance, MSSD Mersing volleyball athletes who undergo imagery training can clearly visualize each step in the overhead serve technique. Through consistent visualization, they improve hand-eye coordination, leading to more accurate and powerful serves. This is supported by Guillot & Collet (2018), who found that imagery training enhances coordination and technical performance in volleyball.

Additionally, imagery training can help improve athletes’ psychological resilience. Athletes facing pressure during competitions, such as championship finals, can use imagery to mentally rehearse overcoming these situations. This reduces anxiety and enhances focus, aligning with Vealey & Greenleaf (2010), who suggested that imagery training helps athletes manage pressure and maintain mental stability.

Implications for Coaches and Training Programs

By incorporating imagery training, coaches can use this technique to help athletes master new skills or refine existing ones. Coaches can teach techniques such as spiking or blocking through visualization, asking athletes to mentally imagine the correct body positioning and movements before performing them physically.

For example, during training sessions, coaches in Mersing could use match video recordings as a reference for imagery training. This is supported by Weinberg & Gould (2019), who emphasized that imagery effectively enhances technical understanding.

Furthermore, imagery training can be integrated with physical training. For instance, volleyball coaches can combine imagery training with physical drills by instructing athletes to mentally visualize their serve movements during rest periods. This enhances training effectiveness, as explained in the PETTLEP Model (Holmes & Collins, 2001), which suggests that imagery should be practiced in a realistic training environment. The PETTLEP Model can also contribute to designing more effective training programs. Coaches can incorporate various elements from the model to develop structured mental training programs, improving both technical and psychological aspects of performance.

Implications for Physical Education

Beyond its benefits for athletes and coaches, imagery training is also highly suitable for physical education programs in schools. It enhances students’ understanding of sports and can be integrated into teaching fundamental volleyball techniques, such as serving and passing. For example, teachers can instruct students to mentally visualize a proper volleyball serve before performing it physically. This approach is supported by Wong et al. (2018), who found that using imagery in physical education improves students’ basic skills. Visualization-based activities help students gain a deeper understanding of volleyball while making the learning process more engaging and motivating.

Additionally, imagery training, when made enjoyable and easy to understand, can attract more students to participate in sports. For example, students who are less physically active may become more motivated when they visualize their success in a particular sport. This aligns with Deci & Ryan (2008), who stated that intrinsic motivation can be nurtured through positive mental experiences. Furthermore, imagery training helps students develop sportsmanship values. It enables them to learn techniques while also understanding the importance of teamwork and perseverance. For instance, by visualizing real-game scenarios, students recognize the significance of team communication, as suggested by Cumming & Williams (2012), who found that imagery training enhances technical and tactical understanding.

Suggestions for Future Research

Study on Different Categories of Athletes

Future research can focus on athletes with varying demographic characteristics and skill levels to examine how the effectiveness of imagery training differs based on factors such as age, gender, and experience level. This study could target youth, adult, or professional athletes. For example, the effectiveness of imagery training may differ between school athletes (who are still learning volleyball fundamentals) and professional athletes (who have already mastered basic techniques).

Comparison Across Different Sports

Imagery training can be tested in other sports to evaluate its effectiveness in improving sport-specific skills. Future studies could apply imagery training to sports such as badminton, swimming, or gymnastics to compare its effectiveness on skills like badminton serves, swimming techniques, or gymnastics movements.

Integration of Technology in Imagery Training

Future research can assess the effectiveness of technologies such as Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) in enhancing the imagery training experience. VR technology could be used to create a more realistic visualization experience, including actual competition environments with background sounds such as crowd cheers. Meanwhile, AR could provide real-time guidance elements to assist athletes in mentally visualizing their techniques.

CONCLUSION

This study provides compelling evidence that imagery training is an effective technique for improving the overhead serve skill level of MSSD volleyball athletes in Mersing. By integrating mental visualization with physical training, athletes demonstrated significant improvements in both serve accuracy and consistency. The findings suggest that mental preparedness plays a crucial role in sports performance, reinforcing the need for a holistic training approach that includes both physical and cognitive development. In this research, the experimental group showed a substantial increase in serve accuracy and consistency, with statistically significant improvements (p < 0.001) in post-test scores. The AAHPERD test results confirmed that athletes who practiced imagery training achieved higher serve accuracy (M = 31.13) than those who relied solely on physical training (M = 20.73).

Imagery training improve the mental training strengthens psychological readiness. Athletes who incorporated imagery training exhibited higher confidence, reduced anxiety, and better concentration, indicating its effectiveness in enhancing psychological resilience. This supports previous research suggesting that mental imagery improves motor control, focus, and pressure management during competitive sports. Moreover, the findings highlight that imagery training can be applied to various sports, especially those requiring precision, consistency, and tactical execution. Future research can explore its impact on different skill levels, age groups, and other sports such as badminton, swimming, and gymnastics.

This research confirms that imagery training is not just a supplementary tool but a fundamental component of sports training. By adopting this method, coaches, athletes, and sports institutions can develop more effective training programs that enhance both physical and mental performance. The study serves as a foundation for future research on integrating mental training techniques in sports science, ultimately contributing to the advancement of athletic performance and sports psychology.

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