Understanding and Addressing Student Radicalization: Lessons from Bangladesh and the World

Understanding and Addressing Student Radicalization: Lessons from Bangladesh and the World

Mostak Bari Fahim¹, Nelufer Yesmen²

¹Post-Graduate Student, Department of Criminology and Police Science,

Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University

²Assistant Professor, Department of Criminology and Police Science,

Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.8080182

Received: 26 July 2024; Revised: 03 August 2024; Accepted: 07 August 2024; Published: 10 September 2024

ABSTRACT

Globally, student radicalization has become an increasingly common phenomenon. More than any other age group, students and young people are at risk of radicalization with adverse ideologies. This study employs a secondary approach of obtaining data and focuses specifically on the risk factors associated to student radicalization. Religious terrorist groups primarily recruit young people and students into their networks. The ideological viewpoint, misinterpretation of sacred religious narratives, poverty, unemployment, intolerance for western culture, political instability, the absence of democracy, social and economic injustice, etc. are some of main risk factors that contribute to student radicalization. Educated youths are brainwashed and offered membership in terrorist groups in order get benefits such as eternal peace in heaven after death. This results in breakdowns in educational institutions, threats to security, and a decline in social unity. Furthermore, it may be beneficial in such circumstances to prevent students from getting radicalized rather than to punish the radicals. A multi-disciplinary, comprehensive approach with the participation of all stakeholders can be effective in detecting and preventing the root of student radicalization.

Keywords: Student Radicalization, Risk Factors, Recruitment, Terrorist Organizations, Ideological Viewpoint.

INTRODUCTION

The Holy Artisan incident on July 1, 2016, remembered as one of the most devastating terrorist attacks in Bangladesh, cost 22 lives, including 18 foreigners (BBC News, 2019). Most of the attackers, who were young students of local private universities, were radicalized with some extreme idea of Islam. From that period on, uprooting any kind of terrorism and radicalization became vital to the government. This is a concerning issue that the young people are mainly exposed to radicalization in many ways, particularly religious extremism. A significant proportion of extremists are between the ages of 18 and 35. This puts into question the micro and macro level sociocultural elements that influence young people to join extremist organizations (Balzacq and Settoul, 2022). Young people who join radical organizations frequently experience severe social and economic issues. These involve increasing levels of unemployment and a sense of injustice in the division of wealth. This is particularly relevant in nations with extended political conflicts or societies with biased and forced elections. A few nations that have had elections include Iraq, Afghanistan and Nigeria (Boru, 2004).

The availability of smartphones and digital media provides us with a greater opportunity to access social networking sites through various kinds of social media services. The youth are the most active users of social media. The radical groups target vulnerable youth through social media. That can be from any group or personal chats and massaging (Haider, 2017). A 2017 UNESCO study provided insight into how social media as well as the internet encourage young people to become violent extremists. The study examined the various approaches employed by violent extremist groups on social networking platforms to recruit young people, attract new members, and share radical information (Dorais et al., 2017). The offline variables, such as face-to-face interactions, pressure from peers, and incorrect interpretation, etc., also comprise stronger forces and must not be neglected at the risk of restricting the freedoms we have to free speech if we just pay attention to the Internet (Borum, 2011).

Extremism processes seem to be amplified by the systematic suppression of Islamic parties and the fractured political landscape (Macdonald 2016). According to Krueger and Malečková (2003), moderately Muslim-populated nations like Bangladesh are exposed to the danger of terrorism due to significant advancements in interpersonal relationships and a developing trend in extremism on the international stage. The most affected demographic in this terrorism trend is young people because of their excitement, quick modernization of media industries, and ease of recruiting young people in terrorist groups. Both leading western nations and those with an average Muslim majority have had problems related to the extremism of the students’ portion of community, especially religious radicalism, which is currently at the center of conflict worldwide. When a person starts interacting with people who share his opinions and looks for confirmation of those convictions, an interpersonal dynamic is created that is influenced by political factors. By highlighting political anomalies, the group was able to promote its ideological viewpoints. Therefore, preventing radicalization requires broadening perspective and searching for root explanations across a wide range of sources, rather than concentrating solely on a particular factor (Borum, 2011; Horgan, 2009).

Radicalization is a phenomenon that has a vast area of research interest. Each study in this area presents a unique viewpoint on the nature, risk factors, and current state of radicalization in this issue. Nevertheless, there is no attempt to focus solely on the risk factors of student radicalization. However, a significant portion of radicalized people are students, making this a critical issue that requires consideration (Khan, 2019). For a deeper understanding, it’s also crucial to highlight the contrasts among the contexts of student radicalization in different regions. The objective of this study is to find the nature and risk factors of student radicalization in Bangladesh and compare that with around the world to get a concentrated view about this issue.

METHOD

This is a comparative study that contrasts this issue in other nations with Bangladesh’s current state of student radicalization. This study uses secondary sources to explore its objectives, including books, journal articles, master’s theses, conference papers, newspapers, and electronic resources from national and international publications. The global context of this issue was first explored, followed by an overview of the current situation in Bangladesh. Finally, a comparative analysis was presented in order to develop a deeper understanding of the nature, risk factors, and ideologies of student radicalization worldwide.

Overview of Risk Factors of Student Radicalization around the World

Radicalization among students has become a pressing concern worldwide. It encompasses a broad spectrum of ideologies, from religious extremism to political radicalism, and poses significant challenges for governments, educational institutions, and society at large. In recent years, numerous instances of students being drawn into extremist groups, engaging in violence, or promoting extremist ideologies have raised alarms (Balzacq and Settoul, 2022).  Terrorist organizations are adaptable opponents that utilize a variety of strategies and instruments to attract and win over adherents, who all too frequently include children. Groups routinely prey on young people’s weaknesses in a variety of situations by providing a variety of incentives designed to make joining the group appealing (Schmid and Tinnes, 2015).

Table: Overview of Risk Factors of Student Radicalization around the World

Consequences of Student Radicalization

Radicalized students pose a significant security threat, both domestically and internationally. They may participate in acts of violence, including acts of terrorism, thereby endangering public safety. For example, the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing involved radicalized students who perpetrated a heinous act of terrorism (Silber and Bhatt, 2007). Student radicalization can lead to the erosion of social cohesion within communities. Extremist ideologies can create divisions, animosity, and mistrust among different groups, causing social fragmentation. This can have long-lasting implications for peaceful coexistence (Pearson et al., 2019). Radicalized students can disrupt the educational environment, affecting the overall learning experience. Schools and universities may be forced to address issues related to extremism, implement security measures, and manage the consequences of radicalization on campus (Gill and Corner, 2016).

Many countries have recently been exposed to student radicalization and have already seen the consequences of it. The United Kingdom has faced significant challenges with student radicalization, particularly in relation to Islamic extremism. Initiatives such as the Prevent Strategy, which focuses on identifying and supporting individuals vulnerable to radicalization, have been controversial but are central to the UK’s efforts to counter student radicalization (Home Office, 2011). The United States has witnessed instances of radicalization among students, including the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing, where the perpetrators were college students. In response, the U.S. government has implemented programs like the Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) initiative, aimed at preventing radicalization and providing support for individuals at risk (Schmid and Tinnes, 2015). Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach that involves governments, educational institutions, communities, and civil society. Additionally, international cooperation is essential to tackle the global nature of this problem effectively.

Comparative Discussion on Risk Factors of Student Radicalization Around the World

Students are particularly vulnerable to radicalization due to a number of factors, including their age, their search for identity, and their exposure to extremist ideology in online (Dorais et al., 2017). Radicalization among students can be attributed to a range of ideological motivations. In the context of religious extremism, the appeal of radical interpretations of religion can draw young people seeking purpose and belonging (Borum, 2011). Social alienation and feelings of marginalization often play a crucial role in radicalization. Students who feel excluded, discriminated against, or disenchanted with society are more susceptible to extremist ideologies that promise an alternative sense of belonging and purpose. This can manifest in various forms, such as far-right extremism or radical political movements (Horgan, 2009; Gill and Corner, 2016). The internet has become a powerful tool for radicalization. Extremist groups utilize online platforms to disseminate propaganda, recruit members, and promote their ideologies (Neumann, 2013). Personal grievances, including perceived injustices, personal setbacks, or traumatic experiences, can push students toward radicalization. These grievances may lead individuals to perceive violence or extremist actions as a means of redressing their perceived wrongs (Moghaddam, 2005).

Student Radicalization in Europe

Unlike other countries or regions, the radicalization process in European countries is slightly different. Because in these countries, communities are quite helpful, and upon raising an issue, the government tries to solve that situation as fast as possible. However, the radicalization in European countries is a concerning issue. Many factors are discussed and explored in several studies. Identity crises and feelings of alienation among students can lead to radical ideologies, which can provide a clear conception that, it is attractive to those struggling with this conflict. Socioeconomic marginalization is a significant factor of student radicalization in Europe. Many students face discrimination, unemployment, and limited educational opportunities that can lead them to extremist ideologies that offer an alternative sense of belonging and purpose for these marginalized individuals (Kastoryano, 2017). Also, students are vulnerable to online radicalization due to their proficiency in using digital technologies and social media (Ragazzi, 2017).

Political and social factors, such as government policies, foreign conflicts, and perceived injustices, can motivate students to embrace radical ideologies to address their perceived grievances. Great Britain, Germany and France have similarities in this matter (Kastoryano, 2017). Also, religious misinterpretation that often manipulates religious narratives can make appeals to students’ religious sentiments and draw them into extremist movements. Weak integration as not feeling fully integrated into the host society, and assimilation policies can lead to the isolation of minority communities that can foster radicalization and extremist ideologies (Balzacq and Settoul, 2022).

Student Radicalization in Arab Countries

According to Al-Badayneh and Alhasan (2016), some theories can be pretty useful to describe the risk factors of student radicalization in Arab countries. The Socio-Economic Deprivation theory posits that the root causes of youth radicalization can be traced back to feelings of socio-economic frustration and a lack of personal fulfillment, often stemming from experiences of discrimination based on economic, ethnic, racial, or religious factors. The Identity Politics theory suggests that young individuals may undergo identity crises, discrimination, and feelings of hostility and humiliation from the dominant social group due to societal events and cultural biases. These experiences make them more susceptible to becoming involved in radical causes. The Social Affiliations theory asserts that the recruitment of youth into radical movements occurs through social connections, such as friendships, family ties, involvement in religious cults, or discipleship. The Political Marginalization theory holds that young people are drawn toward radicalism and violence because they feel alienated, marginalized, and excluded from mainstream society. The Presence of Radical Ideology theory argues that the main driver of youth radicalization is the existence and prevalence of radical behaviors, thoughts, and beliefs. It is also suggested that radicals have infiltrated and gained influence in many mosques, where they lure attendees into adopting radical ideologies and possibly engaging in violent actions. Overall individual factors include personal grievances, political unrest, the practice of pursuing excitement and status, and disrupting the norm. On the other hand, group polarization, the amplified influence of isolated groups on social realities, activist radicalization as a struggle against state authority, collective radicalization resulting from internal group competition, etc., are the group risk factors. These risk factors are quite similar to those of European countries like France and Germany, but the root of these factors can differ around other regions (Kastoryano, 2017).

Student Radicalization in South-East Asia Region

South East Asia is a pressing concern that has garnered the attention of scholars, policymakers, and security experts about the issue of radicalization. Studying many literatures, the following factors came up as the risk factors to student radicalization in this area. Socioeconomic disparities are a fundamental driver of student radicalization in South East Asia. The region exhibits substantial income inequality, and many students come from marginalized and disadvantaged backgrounds. Extremist groups often exploit these disparities to recruit individuals who are searching for a sense of identity and purpose (Anas, 2020). Religious identity and sectarianism play a pivotal role in the radicalization of students in this area. South East Asia is home to a diverse array of religious beliefs, with varying interpretations of Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity. Extremist groups often manipulate these differences to create divisions and attract students who identify with a particular sect or religious ideology (Hegghammer, 2010).

Political instability and governance issues are contributing factors to student radicalization in the region. Weak or corrupt governments can lead students to seek alternatives, including extremist ideologies, as a means to address their grievances or desire for political change (ICG, 2019). The internet has emerged as a potent tool for radicalization across South East Asia. Extremist organizations have harnessed online platforms to disseminate propaganda and recruit new members, exploiting the tech-savvy nature of the region’s youth. Social media, in particular, has played a significant role in this process (Atran et al., 2017). Ideological appeals offered by extremist groups can be highly persuasive. Students are attracted to movements that frame their actions as part of a righteous struggle, tapping into their sense of justice and the desire to effect change. Such ideological justifications have proven effective in recruiting and radicalizing students (Henkin et al., 2020).

Student Radicalization in Pakistan

The younger generation in Pakistan bore the brunt of this radicalization, with intolerance and extremism emerging as unintended consequences. This radicalization affected the youth across different social classes and economic backgrounds, particularly those who were well-educated (Khan, 2019). The major terrorist groups in Pakistan can be characterized using a few different methods. The Loosely Coupled Model makes it easier to understand why followers, sympathizers, and militant groups interact in a single space. Usually, religious gatherings, public forums, places of worship, and educational institutions are the places where militant groups search for new recruits.  The Bridge Model constitutes the organizations, groups, and political parties that act as a link between potential terrorists and extremist groups. Encapsulating Model is an extensive social network would be developed to represent a sizable enterprise include missionary, in order to win over the sympathies of the community and militant units that carry out acts of militancy (Basit, 2021; Haque, 2016).

Several factors associated with the student radicalization were identified in various studies in Pakistan. In Pakistan, the students are most vulnerable to the risk factors of student radicalization, such as identity issues, unsuccessful integration, isolation, exclusion, and prejudice sentiments, a sense of deprivation, degradation, stigmatization, and rejection emotions (Khan, 2019). Religion-related events, educational institutes, lack of employment options, puritanical perspectives on society, politics, and faith; exclusivism; conservatism; and a rejection of innovation, etc. are also counted as risk factors of student radicalization in Pakistan (Rahim et al., 2022). The majority of radicalization-related issues are connected to ideas of religious purity and morality. Also, the students’ cells of militant organizations and modern Islamist networks increase the likelihood of student radicalization in Pakistan. The concept of “Caliphate” that indicated to make a state that would be directed and governed by Islamic laws and cultures can also be used to motivate students to radicalization (Basit, 2021).

Student Radicalization in Bangladesh

The youth and student population of Bangladesh are at high risk of being radicalized by different terrorist organizations. Many news articles from local newspaper indicated that most of the radicalized individuals are either students or young people. They are easy target to brainwash and to manipulate with misinterpretations of religious narratives. The majority of the potential radical youth arrested by Bangladesh Police are in the age group of 16–25 and are students (Prothom Alo, 2023; The Daily Star, 2019). In Bangladesh, like other countries and region has some serious risk factors of radicalization that make the student more vulnerable and motivate to radicalization.

Political Factors

The inability of the government to reunite all parties altogether and forge an agreement amongst the various political groups on crimes against humanity caused division in the nation. Students felt excluded from the political process because they aren’t permitted to participate in the student wings of political parties and in an effort to make equilibrium with the reality, they look for other ways to provide these backings. The Bangladeshi citizens does not think that the government upholds human rights on every level which might have a direct or indirect impact on the process of student radicalization. Also, when a government supports the principles of a democratic system, terrorist organizations get a huge chance to freely publicize their ideology up front, which can lead to misinterpretation of holy narratives and ultimately lead to radicalization (Haider 2017, CRI, 2018).

Institutional Factors

Most individuals believe that universities are more profit-driven than service-driven. The trend toward profit also has an impact on pupils. According to Glees and Pope (2005), British higher education’s dwindling public funding for institutions has caused them to adopt a more ignorant attitude toward the applicants they are accepting rather than their former delicatessen persona. And this is another factor contributing to ignorance in Bangladeshi educational institutions. However, we must also keep in mind that it cannot be seen as the main reason for student radicalization.

Personal Factors

The likelihood of becoming radicalized would have increased as the quantity of inexperience increased. Many students feel insecure about their future careers, which increases the possibility that depression could take hold and radicalize them. Most Bangladeshi students, especially those enrolled in bachelor’s programs, rely on their families for financial support so they may afford to attend college. According to research, increasing the socioeconomic component by one would reduce the likelihood of becoming radicalized. Students may have many questions and confusion in their minds. But the traditional family structure discourages kids from discussing difficulties with their parents, and a lack of communication with family members leads students to radical processes. The intolerance of students makes them want to put an end to all kinds of criticism and opposition to religious views and form the idea of making a religious state and militancy jihad, which can lead to radicalization. Extremist groups provide members with a variety of incentives in order to attract new recruits. Students are brainwashed by the misinterpretation of holy religious quotes that give them a sense of purpose in life and the afterlife and ultimately make them radicalized. Additionally, the “us vs. them” outlook, with “us” representing all Muslims worldwide and “them” representing Western governments, carried out from within the conventional framework of religion shapes some disagreements, which is also a risk factor of being radicalized (BIPSS, 2017; Haider, 2017).

Online and Social Media Radicalization

According to Amit et al. (2020), Radical organizations primarily communicate with Bangladeshi students via Facebook Messenger or WhatsApp Messenger, or they find them through mutual acquaintances on Facebook or WhatsApp. They are driven by claims of the local and global enslavement of Muslims, religious duty as prescribed by the Qur’an or Hadith, the promotion of a strong sense of brotherhood, monetary incentives, rewards in the hereafter, and admission to Jannat (Heaven). The majority of occasions, the students just ignore or block the person, but occasionally, they become radicalized by them. Additionally, the students think it is essential in today’s world since Muslims are oppressed; they also think it is the right and authentic understanding of Islam, albeit occasionally they criticize them for doing so and choose to ignore them. These actions result in the pupils becoming radicalized online.

Comparison

In Bangladesh, radicalization is mainly understood through the action or arrest of radical individuals by police or other law enforcement agencies (Haider, 2017), while in Europe the whole concept of radicalization has been perceived by the prevention measures taken to tackle the radicalization on many levels (Balzacq and Settoul, 2022), and in Arab countries, student radicalization has been understood by concepts of personal grievance, vulnerability, polarization, outbidding, etc. (Al-Badayneh and Alhasan, 2016). And in the Southeast Asia region, the root causes are focused on things like socio-economic disparities, religious identity, political instability, ideological appeals, etc. (Anas, 2020). In Pakistan, the ideological viewpoint of radicalization is important to them as some radical but not extreme viewpoints are directly expressed by some political parties there, but the government always gives emphasis on counter-narratives, correction of misinterpretation of holy statements, educational awareness programs, family awareness, awareness among diverse cultural groups, etc. (Basit, 2021). In this case in Bangladesh, combat and repression of terrorism with zero-tolerance policy get emphasis rather than any kind of prevention strategies, unlike the other regions.

Pakistan is home to an extensive number of cultural groups. Certain groups have some fundamental ideologies that consist of engaging in such behaviors that may be interpreted as radicalization. Naturally, there would be differences between the ideas shared by different groups in this situation (NDHR, 2014). That kind of situation never emerged in Bangladesh. In addition, the majority of countries use social media to recruit radicalized individuals, and some face-to-face recruitment methods use political, cultural, or religious groups to do so, as evidenced by a few studies carried out in Bangladesh and Pakistan (Khan, 2019; Haider, 2017).

As per the literature that studied student radicalization in different countries, one specific statement can be made: different countries have different approaches to neutralize the problem of student radicalization. The technique of response to an incident and preventive measures are also varied in a broad way among different countries. Where some countries focus on the root causes and factors of student radicalization so that they can make a move to prevent the radicalization problem, like Indonesia, Pakistan, the UAE, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, etc., on the other hand, some countries are only responding to the incident and arresting and detaining the radicals, like Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, etc. Even some European countries are planning multidisciplinary preventive strategies without exploring and indicating the root causes and factors of student radicalization. Canada, the USA, and the UK are the countries that are taking measures like this.

Most of the countries in the world, more or less, are very concerned about the issues of student radicalization. No one wants their youth to get ruined like this. All the countries are taking preventive measures and programs to tackle and control student radicalization in their own countries. But the emphasis on prevention programs varies across countries. In most European countries, prevention programs are highly emphasized, but they rarely look through the root cause, while in Bangladesh, prevention and exploring the root cause get less priority, and reactive measures like arresting, detaining, and punishment are given to the radicalized individual after the harm has been caused. So, approaches are different in every country to understand and know the student radicalization. Different countries place emphasis on different issues of radicalization. That depends on the societal issues, political stability, cultural diversity, and socio-economic condition of that specific country. Moreover, Bangladesh has many similarities and differences with other countries in exploring, detecting, and preventing student radicalization issues, whose approach is different from others.

CONCLUSION

Terrorist organizations are adaptable opponents that utilize a variety of strategies and instruments to attract and win over adherents, who all too frequently include children. Groups routinely prey on young people’s weaknesses in a variety of situations by providing a variety of incentives designed to make joining the group appealing. Young people have occasionally been coerced into joining terrorist organizations or duped into doing so. Although it seems that domestic student enlistment and radicalization aren’t taking place to the same degree as they have overseas, it is unknown to what extent these phenomena are actually happening throughout USA (Schmid and Tinnes, 2015). The potential domestic effects of the global radicalization that is taking place are also unclear. According to occurrences that occurred previously, the circumstance in Europe has demonstrated that a lot of the young people who are thought to be most susceptible to radicalization or recruiting are second- and third-generation immigrants. These young people are thought to struggle with identity issues frequently, have trouble integrating, and possibly consider themselves excluded or marginalized—vulnerabilities which have been used by terrorists to win their support (Bott et al., 2009). Developing projects that reflect and advance the diversity of the students’ cultural background; Planning multicultural awareness campaigns with the students; Giving parents’ inclusion a high priority and provide them with a range of opportunities to work with the school. (Borum, 2004) Encouraging programs that help students establish a feeling of community with their school and society at large; teaching kids how to evaluate the media critically, including the internet and social media; Discussing the issue of students who seem to be vulnerable with other instructors (Atran et al., 2017). Never taking independent action based on suspicions, as these may turn out to be unfounded, etc. can be helpful in recognizing and stopping radicalization. Further research is being considered in order to better understand the consequences of the phenomena of student radicalization needs higher educational need. It is a complex subject that calls for a great deal of sensitivity (Déri, 2021). A comprehensive approach to preventing student radicalization should include creating a supportive and inclusive school environment, promoting critical thinking and media literacy skills, addressing the root causes of vulnerability, and developing and implementing policies and procedures to identify and address potential radicalization.

RECOMMENDATIONS

According to Amit et al. (2020) following recommendations can be implemented to decrease the student radicalization and educational institutes must ensure to monitor, assess and analyze the status of their students in the context of Bangladesh. Also, the recommendations from Center for Strategic and International Studies, (2018) included here.

1. Through engaging in curricular and extracurricular activities, educational institutions can promote values against radicalization.
2. In order for students to understand how to safely post content on social media, it is important to teach them social media ethics and best practices.
3. Encouraging and assisting youth-led awareness efforts on social media both online and offline
4. Developing student resilience to radical content through the creation of posters, quick films, TV commercials, and other types of content, as comprehensive censorship or filtering of such content may not be achievable.
5. Universities might offer a required course on current events that provides a broad perspective on issues and conflicts, preventing youth from growing up with a victim mentality.
6. A supportive and inclusive school environment can foster a culture where students feel respected and valued, regardless of their background or beliefs.
7. Promote critical thinking and media literacy skills can evaluate information critically and identify misinformation and propaganda.
8. Schools can play a role in addressing the root causes of vulnerability, such as poverty, social exclusion, and mental health problems.
9. Schools can develop and implement policies and procedures to identify and address potential radicalization.

Educational institutions play a crucial role in preventing student radicalization. Implementing programs that raise awareness about the dangers of extremism and promote critical thinking can help students resist radical ideologies (Borum, 2004). Such initiatives can encourage tolerance, open dialogue, and multiculturalism. Understanding of Violent vs. Non-violent Extremism, Counter Narratives on Misinterpreted Holy Statements, Evidence-Based Study and Exploration on Radicalization, and Liberal-Religious Education can be the pulling factor from radicalization (Basit, 2021). Providing students with access to mental health services can address the personal grievances that may drive radicalization. These services can help students cope with trauma, frustration, and feelings of alienation, reducing their vulnerability to extremist ideologies (Bott et al., 2009).

Efforts to counter online radicalization should involve cooperation between tech companies, governments, and civil society. Social media platforms can implement stricter content moderation policies to limit the spread of extremist content (Schmid and Tinnes, 2015). Also, government agencies can work to track and disrupt online recruitment efforts. Community-based programs that engage students in positive activities and provide support networks can prevent radicalization. By offering alternatives to extremist groups and promoting social inclusion, communities can play a vital role in countering student radicalization (Borum and Patterson, 2019).

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