Women in Tanzanian Political History: A Case of Anne S.Makinda, 1949-2020

Women in Tanzanian Political History: A Case of Anne S.Makinda, 1949-2020

Anagladness Mrumah

St. Augustine University of Tanzania

DOI : https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.808060

Received: 7 August 2024; Accepted: 17 August 2024; Published: 30 August 2024

ABSTRACT

This article examines how women’s involvement in Tanzanian politics has been a catalyst for growth because women’s roles in leadership have historically been effective in societal development. However, the roles of Tanzanian women have been overlooked in historical documentation, something which is very important to be in written form, so that future generations can find good examples to emulate. The aim of writing this article was to show that a Tanzanian woman has been involved in political activities since long ago, on one hand, the leadership positions she once held, on the other hand her performance in leadership and her success. The study employed Historical Research Design.Data collected came from different sources which are Primary and Secondary Sources. Primary written information was obtained from the Tanzania National Archives (TNA) and East Africana Collections in Dar es Salaam such as: Speeches, Hansards, Reports and magazines. Secondary sources included; books, journal, articles, theses and dissertation from the universities of Saint Augustine-Mwanza and Dar es Salaam. oral interviews were conducted to the people who were linked to the topic such as Anne S. Makinda and her relatives in order to obtain the early life history based on research objective.

The overall objective of the study was to examine the position of women in the political history of Tanzania and make a historical tour of Anne Makinda’s political roles from 1975 to 2020 to illustrate the case. The study uses gender theory to analyze the political history of Tanzanian women, in order to understand women’s performance in politics in more detail. The article revealed that, Anne succeeded in becoming a prominent leader because the education she received of her time had combined both theory and practice and fortunately, during her time students were involved in politics. This was for the case of TANU Youth League branch. Thistherefore kept her active and exemplary in women political history in Tanzania from early life and stood out as a tool, both national and international levels. Her practical success and good values constitute a history for Tanzanian women.

The article is divided into five main parts. The first part is an introduction and the second one describes Anne Makinda’s political history. The third part highlights Anne Makinda’s role when she was in a Public Accounts Committee (PAC) of the parliament from 1975 to 1983, the fourth part explains Minister of State, Information, and Broadcasting (1983-1990). The fifth part discusses her role in the Ministry of Community Development, Women, and Children (1990-1995), the sixth part explains her carrier as Regional Commissioner of Ruvuma and Member of Parliament in Southern Njombe (1995-2000), the seventh part describes her as a Deputy Speaker of Tanzania National Assembly (2005-2010), another part discuses her role when she was the Speaker of the Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania (2010-2015). The other part points out Anne Makinda’s role internationally and the final part is the conclusion.

INTRODUCTION

Throughout history, women’s political leadership has always demonstrated high contribution, in different ways, emphasizing the societal progressive change.Dr. Hanan Ashrawi from Palestine and Mrs. Tzipi Livni from Israel, for instance, managed to solve the conflict between the two nations through negotiation. These two women joined hands in their effort to make peace negotiations between Palestine and Israel in 1991; something that brought a good relationship between the two nations.[1] Furthermore, Park Geun-hye from South Korea, in her leadership, succeeded in offering a view of the South and North Korean unification as a benefit and fulfillment of Korea’s national destiny, rather than a component of the longstanding ideological competition between the two Koreas. In Africa, women have played a significant role in political history by bringing different societal changes and resolving various matters. Women, for instance, have been able to solve both social-political and economic problems in their countries. Among others are: Queen Mamohato from Lesotho who managed to improve social health services in Lesotho, when the country faced serious challenges in the health sector.[2] She made a great contribution by the construction of the Queen Mamohato Memorial Hospital in the country’s capital, Maseru. The hospital was modern. The new public hospital had well-trained professionals, a maternity wing with a forty-bed nursery, a ten-bed adult Intensive Care Unit, and an ophthalmology unit that helped to solve the then existing challenges. Moreover, Rwandan women leaders made a significant historical impact after the destructive genocide of 1994 caused by ethnic tensions. Women leaders became pioneers in assisting the population in rebuilding lives. For instance, women in different leadership positions played a great role in finding solutions for the country’s problems at that time, something that created new relationships between the Hutu and the Tutsi. In addition to that, Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, during her leadership, made an effort to eradicate Liberia’s decade-long civil war caused by ethnic division, corruption, and economic disparities; which resulted in the prolonged civil conflicts that severely damaged the health-care system of Liberia. Furthermore, she was the one who fought against the Ebola Crisis.[3] The same is the case in Tanzania as in other countries, women have been fulfilling their responsibilities well in every leadership position that they used to hold in bringing about success. From 2005 to 2007 Dr. Asha Rose Migiro, when she was in various leadership positions, succeeded in doing work that helped outside and inside Tanzania. For example, when she held a position as; foreign minister, Chair of the Council of Ministers Meeting of the International Conference of the Great Lakes Region and Chair of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), she helped a lot in matters of peace and security in the Great Lakes Region.[4] For instance, she managed to ensure that peace and security prevailed in the elections of Zambia, Lesotho and Madagascar during her period. Likewise, Gertrude Mongella, is a woman who in her leadership as the President of Pan-African Parliament (2004-2010) emphasized a lot on eliminating the issue of gender which contributed significantly to the collapse of the development of Africans.[5] She strongly encouraged women to feel that they too can occupy those positions that they thought only men could afford. She also emphasized that Africans should use the resources they have for their own development. Furthermore, when Zakia Meghji was the Minister of Tourism (1997-2005), the sector was very strong because she had engaged this sector with the private sector. Therefore, during her leadership, the tourism sector was very tough in bringing about the development of the country among other sectors,[6] accounting for 16 percent of GDP and bringing in close to $1bn in foreign exchange. This article addresses the roles played by Anne Makinda in her political journey in order to attain a deeper understanding of the performance of women leaders in this aspect; since there has been no detailed analysis by scholars on the performance of these women leaders, it is deemed necessary to study and analyze Anne Makinda’s career.

Significance of the Study

The relevance of the study was to come up with the new knowledge, which could help the Tanzanians to know about women’s position in Tanzania’s political history. Likewise, to influence young scholars to write both women’s and men’s history after realizing the women’s position in the society.

Scope of the study

The study covered the entire responsibility of Anne S. Makinda. It traced back from her early life history up to her political responsibility with the aim of examining the importance of Tanzanian women in political history at both national and international level. It covered the year 1949 when Makinda was born and ended 2020 because the aim was to explore her early life history and education with her course of responsibility between the years.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The study is built on Gender theory. it emerged in the 1960s in America after the rise of the American feminists who wanted to undermine social quality distinctions based on sex. The founder of gender theory was an American, Natalie Zemon Davis, who, after seeing that little attention was being paid to scholarly work on women compared to that of men’s studies, was triggered to formulate a gender theory that insisted on equality between men and women. The theory maintains that, women and men are defined in terms of one another and that an entirely separate study could achieve no understanding of either.[7] The theory was helpful in this study as it suggested that information about women was important for men. This usage insists that the world of women should be the world of men created in it and by it. It rejects the interpretative utility of the idea of separate spheres, maintaining that to study men or women is isolation perpetuates the fiction that the experience of one sex has little or nothing to do with the other.

Anne S. Makinda’s Political History

Anne S. Makinda has a long political journey since she was a student. During her secondary school education, she was a member of the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) Youth League from 1963 to 1967, and the Secretary of the Youth League Branch in the district. Anne S. Makinda continued to rise in national politics, and in 1980, she was appointed as an assistant registrar of the Revolutionary Party (Chama cha Mapinduzi). She then became a member of the Central Committee of the Party in 1983, where her responsibilities included supervising the TANU Youth League and the Tanzanian Women Organization (TWOW). Moreover, Anne Makinda was elected Member of Parliament for the first time in 1985. She was a Member of Parliament (MP) for three different constituencies: Mbeya (1985-1990), Kawe (1990-2000), and Mpanda (2000-2005). In 1985, Anne Makinda served as Minister of State, Information, and Broadcasting (1985-1990), and then moved to the Ministry of Community Development, Women, and Children (1990-1995). In 1990, Anne Makinda was appointed as the Deputy Minister for Women and Development. In 1995-2000 Makinda saved as Regional Commissioner of Ruvuma and Member of Parliament in Southern Njombe, as a Deputy Speaker of Tanzania National Assembly and as a Speaker of the Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania 2010-2015. It is in carrying out her activities with great professionalism that is why she has been able to be among the notable women in the history of women in politics.

Anne S. Makinda’s Roles at National Level

Anne S. Makinda officially entered the political spectrum in 1975 when, historically, Tanzania did not have many political elites; therefore, since she is one of the first political elites, she played a major role in the efforts to achieve the responsibilities in the chosen sectors. Likewise, during the period she served as a politician specifically (1983-1995), the country was going through a difficult time economically and therefore she used great effort to run the ministries she was in charge of. In a special way, she was the first female speaker in the country and therefore used a lot of energy to ensure that she removes the concept that a woman cannot lead in such a big position because since independence, the parliament was led by a man. More so, it is during her speakership, the Tanzanian parliament was very excited because of the establishment of multi-party system, so she had to be very careful to ensure that she leads without discrimination. Similarly, it will be remembered that, Anne Makinda started to contest for the first time in the parliamentary position in Njombe region in 1995, when it was the first time for Tanzania to establish a multi-party system. In that sense, she should have used productive arguments that could convince the people to choose her as a woman among her many opponents, who were also men.

Anne S. Makinda in Public Accounts Committee (PAC) of the parliament from 1975 to 1983

Anne Makinda’s journey of serving the nation started soon after graduating with an Advanced Diploma in Accounting in 1975. Through the Public Accountant Committee (PAC) she evolved to a great extent on teaching those whom she met under that committee on how to keep financial records in payment Voucher (PV), cash books and other related material practically. That was due to the fact that, the people she met in that committee were not knowledgeable enough on that field, hence she just grouped them in groups and teach them practically as it was very difficult to teach them theoretically due to the educational background. Similarly, she was responsible on making and correcting different financial reports which were not well documented previously. Anne Makinda’s adherence to professional principles made many things in the parliament clear as previously in the parliament there was no some real competent personnel especially in accounting, something that made some of the things be conducted manually.[8]

Anne S. Makinda’s Role as Minister of State for Information and Broadcasting (1983- 1990)

Anne Makinda’s tenure as Minister of State for Information and Broadcasting was very instrumental in the development of Tanzanian media. She emphasized bringing significant changes inthe media sector by establishing both radio and television services. Before her leadership, Tanzania did not have comprehensive broadcasting services. Her achievements in this role were part of a larger goal to improve national communication infrastructure and provide Tanzanians with better information and education.[9] Her leadership also aimed to enhance the country’s ability to disseminate information effectively, which contributed to raising public awareness.[10] Furthermore, Anne Makinda’s efforts in establishing the National Museum in Dar es Salaam helped preserve Tanzania’s cultural heritage and promoted tourism. She promoted national history and traditional artifacts. By this time, she demonstrated her effective leadership skills and strong values, which contributed to her historical importance.

Anne S. Makinda’s Role as Minister of Community Development, Women, and Children (1990-1995)

Anne S. Makinda’s role as Minister of Community Development, Women, and Children was very crucial in advancing women’s rights and child education. During her tenure, she made considerable efforts to support women’s and children’s development. She implemented programs aimed at improving women’s status in Tanzania and providing better opportunities for education and socio-economic development. She also supported women’s training programs,which helped enhance their skills and knowledge. Moreover, she provided valuable support to child education programs, which contributed to the improvement of the educational sector. Her leadership in this role highlighted her commitment to women and children’s rights and her dedication to national development. Additionally, she supported the development of policies that aimed at enhancing the quality of life for Tanzanian women and children, demonstrating her role as a champion of social justice.[11]

Anne S. Makinda’s carrier as Regional Commissioner of Ruvuma and Member of Parliament in Southern Njombe (1995-2000)

In Njombe similarly within the period, Anne Makinda made efforts to ensure that people in Njombe got different social services such as dispensaries, schools, water and other

social services.[12] Israel Elias Mgaya and Prudensia Mdete explained the challenge of having no health service in Mamongolo-Njombe. The interviewees expressed how people, especially pregnant mothers suffered because of the absence of the service. Before the construction of the dispensary, Mamongolo people used lupasa. Lupasa was a kind of a wooden stretcher which people used for carrying sick people to a hospital. They commented that it was under the influence of Makinda that Mamongolo Dispensary which was currently serving the people was constructed. Makinda also contributed to the effort of mobilising people to build schools in Njombe, whereby currently people get education.[13] In 2000 the council had a total of 52 primary schools also about 37 schools which is equivalent to 71 percent were supplied with water.  A total of 81 percent of all the schools in the district were supplied with water tanks, water wells or tap water.[14]

Anne S. Makinda as a Deputy Speaker of Tanzania National Assembly (2005-2010)

After the 2005 elections, Hon. Makinda once again won parliament representation through the Njombe South constituency and, in turn, ran for deputy speaker.[15] Due to her experience and brilliant performance in parliamentary matters, she defeated other candidates and thus was able to be elected deputy speaker of the Tanzanian parliament, while the late Samuel Sitta was elected as Speaker. As deputy speaker, she was able to oversee government matters including the crucial issue, for instance the saga of Richmond which led to resignation of many ministers as well as the dissolution of the cabinet.[16] Furthermore, Hon. Makinda advised the Speaker in making sure that the parliament and executives did not contradict each other and carefully managing the rules and regulations of the parliament. Her experience as the deputy Speaker gave the confidence to run for the post of speaker for the parliament in 2010[17]

Anne Makinda’s Role as Speaker of the Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania (2010-2015)

Anne Makinda’s election as Speaker of Parliament in 2010 marked a significant milestone in Tanzanian political history, as she became the first female Speaker of Parliament.[18] Her role as Speaker was crucial in effectively managing parliamentary proceedings.[19] She demonstrated competence and impartiality in her leadership, which earned her respect and recognition from her peers.[20] Her leadership was marked by a commitment to upholding democratic principles and ensuring fair representation for all members of parliament. Anne Makinda’s tenure also contributed to promoting women’s leadership in Tanzania and served as an inspiration for other women to pursue political leadership roles. Her achievements in this position further solidified her legacy as a trailblazer in Tanzanian politic

Anne Makinda’s International Role

Anne Makinda’s international role was exemplified by her contributions to global discussions on women’s leadership and political participation. She was an active member of various international organizations, advocating for women’s rights and social justice.[21] Her involvement in international conferences and forums raised awareness about the challenges faced by women in politics and promoted the importance of women’s participation in decision-making processes hand in hand with the provision of security, just and social sevices to women and children. Anne Makinda’s international role also showcased her commitment to global development and collaboration.

Anne Makinda as president of United Nation Organization Fund (UNICEF), 1993-1994

Under her regime, Hon. Anne Makinda made an effort to promote family planning, the Board revised its policies relating to family planning, and field offices were encouraged to enhance their collaboration with UNFPA, WHO and relevant NGOs. In September 1994 UNICEF held an international conference in Cairo Egypt, basing on population and development which provided a major opportunity to focus and have global attention on family planning and the central role of child survival and birth spacing in family planning activities.[22]Basing on gender, UNICEF supported a programme on women’s rights in law and life that articulated the concerns of women’s organizations, advised congressmen on gender issues and promoted development of gender-sensitive legislation and public policies. It also supported initiatives to reduce women’s workload (Tanzania); raised their level of education and control over income (Cambodia); and increased their say in the management of community resources by village development committees (Sierra Leone).[23] Many countries and concerned organizations provided additional support in the form of food, shelter materials and medical supplies. Emergency shipment through the UNICEF supply operation in Copenhagen totalled almost US$ 87 million, a 16 per cent increase over the 1992 amount.[24]

Anne Makinda as President of SADC Parliamentary Forum (2014-2016)

Hon. Makinda, as president to SADC Parliament, had the role to preside over all proceedings of the plenary meetings and all conferences of the executive committee. Furthermore, she was accountable to open, drop or close the sittings of the plenary meeting after negotiation with the parliamentary business sub-committee. It was through Makinda’s management whereby there was progress within the SADC area with the formation of the SADC model law to finish child marriage. The law was developed by the SADC Parliamentary Forum (SADC PF) the law known as SADC model Law to finish child Marriage and Defending those already in Marriage.[25] Victims of early marriages, children in marriage and pregnant ladies would own entry to HIV counselling, testing, therapy and household planning and measures to forestall mother-to-baby transmission of HIV. Youngsters would own a proper right to delivery registration. Governments were supposed to form programmes to satisfy the needs of children in marriages together with financial empowerment. Nevertheless, victims of early marriages would own entry to authorized aid and authorized representation.[26]

CONCLUSION

The paper provides a comprehensive analysis of Anne Makinda’s political history and her significant contributions to Tanzanian politics. Her role in various capacities, including as in Public Accounts Committee (PAC) of the parliament,Minister of State for Information and Broadcasting, Minister of Community Development, Women, and Children, Regional Commissioner of Ruvuma and Member of Parliament in Southern Njombe,Deputy Speaker of Tanzania National Assembly and Speaker of Parliament, demonstrates her commitment to advancing women’s rights and social justice.

It is obvious that this study has opened the door for most authors to think about the many positive aspects of women leaders in Tanzania that should be written and read. This is because Anne Makinda has been able to represent many Tanzanian women who for decades have been leading their ministries with great competence. Therefore, in order to deeply understand the history of Tanzanian women more and more, there is a great need to write together their lives, work and achievements so that future generations can find solid leadership foundations. Her achievements have had a profound impact on Tanzanian politics and serve as an inspiration for future generations of women leaders. The study highlights the importance of documenting and recognizing the contributions of influential figures like Anne Makinda in shaping the political landscape of Tanzania.

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49. Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania: Majadiliano ya Bunge (Hansard) Taarifa Rasmi za Bunge, Mkutano wa Nne Tarehe 25^th August, 2011, Dodoma
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51. Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania: Majadiliano ya Bunge (Hansard) Taarifa Rasmi za Bunge Mkutano wa Kumi na Saba Tarehe 28^th November 28, 2014
52. Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania: Majadiliano ya Bunge (Hansard) Taarifa Rasmi za Bunge, Mkutano wa Nane tarehe 13^th -16^th Julai 2012
53. Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania: Majadiliano ya Bunge (Hansard) Taarifa Rasmi za Bunge Mkutano wa Kumi na Moja Tarehe 16 April, 2013, Dodoma
54. Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania: Majadiliano ya Bunge Taarifa Rasmi, (Hansard) Mkutano wa Nane Tarehe 16^th – 22^nd Juni 1987, Dodoma
55. Jamuhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania: Majadiliano ya Bunge, Taarifa Rasmi (Hansard) Mkutano wa kumi na Tatu Tarehe 25^th October, 1988, Dodoma
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64. East African Community, East African Legislative Assembly: Welcoming Speech by Rt. Hon. Margaret Nantongo Zziwa, Speaker of EALA at the Address by Rt. Hon. Anna Makinda, Speaker of the Parliament of Tanzania – Wednesday, August 27, 2014, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

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65. Kumburu, P. N. National Health Insurance Fund (NHIF) In Tanzania as a Tool for Improving Universal Coverage and Accessibility to Health Care services: Cases from Dar es Salaam Tanzania, Master’s Degree in Health System Management (MHSM) Mzumbe University, 2015
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Newspapers

68. Daily news Reporter, Makinda Reiterates Bunge no Place for Quick Money (from Daily news February 23, 2014)
69. Maoulidi S. Has Tanzania’s Parliament Elected Anna Makinda As Its First Female Speaker Because She’s The Best Person For The Job, Or Because It Thinks She’s Less Likely To Demand Accountability Than Her Predecessor. (Pambazuko November 18, 2010).
70. Mbashiru K. the Citizen Reporter. Makinda out of Race for parliament Speaker (The Citizen Friday November, 2015)
71. Otieno J. P There is a Need for Gender Parity. (The Citizen Saturday September 9, 2017
72. Protace Y. Miaka 40 ya Mbunge Anne Makinda: Afunguka Alipopitia na Mikiki ya Uspika asimulia vuhunzi vya safari ya akina mama (Makala Nipashe 7 June 2017)
73. Tanzania: Anne Makinda- “I will Build the Strong Parliament” Dar es Salaam Tanzania Daily News, 17 November, 2010
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75. Uchaguzi wa CCM 2015: Anne Semamba Makinda Spika wa Bunge (Mwananchi Monday April 27 2015)

MEDIA

The East Africa TV

University of Dar es Salaam, Mwalimu J.K. NyerereMlimani Campus.www.udsm.ac.tz

Julius K. Nyerere, Philosophy of Mwalimu Julius KambarageNyererehttps://www.juliusnyerere.org

From You Tube Dar Media 24, September 1^st 2018

Bongo 5 August 20, 2018, 9:04 am

Bongo Sihami You Tube, 5^th March 2020

www.tanzania.go.tz?history html.> Retrieved 2^nd December2020

From You Tube Mwananchi Digital March 29^th 2018

INTERVIEW

Interview with Israel Elias Mgaya from Yakobi-Njombe on 10^th October, 2020

Interview with Prudensia Mdete, Yakobi-Njombe on 13^th October 2020

Interview with Fr. Onesmo Wisi a Vicar General of Dodoma Diocese, on 12^th September, 2020

Interview with Fr. Jeremiah Msaki, Mwenge-Dar es Salaam, on 21^st September, 2020

Interview with Fr. Peter Weli, Njombe Cathedral, on 23^rd November, 2020

Interview with Anne S. Makinda, Mwenge-Dar es Salaam, on 1^st December, 2020

FOOT NOTES

1. The Atkin Paper Series: The Role of Women in Israel-Palestinian Peace Negotiations (Lior Finkel, ICSR Atkin Fellow March 2012), p.2
2. Sub-Saharan Africa Queen ‘Mamohato Memorial Hospital, Lethoso (Unpublished)
3. Online discussion on Women, political participation and decision-making in Africa Organized by the Division for the Advancement of Women of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs and the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa in cooperation with the E-Network of National Gender Equality Machineries in Africa September 4 – October 14, 2007.
4. Official UN website, http://www.un.org/sg/deputysg.shtml)
5. Msuya, V. A Biography of Gerturude Mongella: A place of Women in Making of Modern Tanzania. MA History Dissertation Egerton University, 2013
6. Welcome Address by Hon. Zakia Hamdani Meghji (MP), Minister for Natural Resources and Tourism at the Opening of the Tanzania Tourism Investment Forum, held at the AICC-Arusha, 22-24 October 2002.
7. Joan W. Scott, “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis”, In the American Historical Review, Vol.9, No. 5, (1989), p. 1056.
8. Interview with Anne Makinda From Mwenge-Dar Es Salaam, 1 December, 2020
9. Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania: Majadiliano ya Bunge Taarifa Rasmi, (Hansard) (Mkutano wa Nane Tarehe 16-22 Juni 1987), p.568
10. Bunge la Tanzania, Majadiliano ya Bunge, (Mkutano wa Kumi na Nne Tarehe 31 January, 1989), p.4
11. TNA, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania, Hotuba ya Waziri wa Maendeleo ya Jamii, Wanawake na Watoto, Mhe. Anne S. Makinda, (Mb) Wakati Akiwasilisha Bungeni Makadirio ya Matumizi ya Fedha kwa Mwaka 1993/1994. Dar es Salaam Tanzania1993), p.14 Also Anne S, Makinda op. cit., 1^st December, 2020
12. Interview with Israel Elias Mgaya from Yakobi-Njombe on 10^th October, 2020
13. United Republic of Tanzania: Njombe District Council, Socio-economic Profile 2016), p.104
14. Katare Mbashiru, the Citizen Reporter. Makinda Out of Race for parliament Speaker (the Citizen Friday November, 2015)
15. Anne Makinda, op. cit., 20^th December, 2020
16. Monica John, Ulingo wa Jinsia Toleo la 11Volume 46 Januari-Machi 2018), p.21
17. Arthur Okwemba, Daudi Kayisi and Sikhonzile Ndlovu, Gender in the 2010 Tanzania Elections), p. 4
18. Legal and Human Rights Centre: Performance Assessment Report of the 10th Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania 2010-2015), p. 38
19. Monica John, op. cit., p.21
20. A Guide to Using the SADC Model Law on Eradicating Child Marriage and Protecting Children Already in Marriage for Parliamentarians, Civil Society Organization and Youth Advocates

[1]The Atkin Paper Series: The Role of Women in Israel-Palestinian Peace Negotiations (Lior Finkel, ICSR Atkin Fellow March 2012), p.2

[2] Sub-Saharan Africa Queen ‘Mamohato Memorial Hospital, Lethoso (Unpublished)

[3]Online discussion on Women, political participation and decision-making in Africa Organized by the Division for the Advancement of Women of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs and the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa in cooperation with the E-Network of National Gender Equality Machineries in Africa September 4 – October 14, 2007.

[4] Official UN website, http://www.un.org/sg/deputysg.shtml)

[5] Violeth Msuya. A Biography of Gerturude Mongella: A place of Women in Making of Modern Tanzania. MA History Dissertation Egerton University, 2013

[6]Welcome Address by Hon. Zakia Hamdani Meghji (MP), Minister for Natural Resources and Tourism at the Opening of the Tanzania Tourism Investment Forum, held at the AICC-Arusha, 22-24 October 2002.

[7] Joan W. Scott, “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis”, In the American Historical Review, Vol.9, No. 5, (1989), p. 1056.

[8]Interview with Anne Makinda From Mwenge-Dar Es Salaam, 1 December, 2020

[9] Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania: Majadiliano ya Bunge Taarifa Rasmi, (Hansard) (Mkutano wa Nane Tarehe 16-22 Juni 1987), p.568

[10] Bunge la Tanzania, Majadiliano ya Bunge, (Mkutano wa Kumi na Nne Tarehe 31 January, 1989), p.4

[11] TNA, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania, Hotuba ya Waziri wa Maendeleo ya Jamii, Wanawake na Watoto, Mhe. Anne S. Makinda, (Mb) Wakati Akiwasilisha Bungeni Makadirio ya Matumizi ya Fedha kwa Mwaka 1993/1994. Dar es Salaam Tanzania1993), p.14 Also Anne S, Makinda op. cit., 1^st December, 2020

[12]Anne Makinda in Controlling Tanzania’s Bunge (from the East Africa Sunday December 19, 2010) https://www.theeastafrica.co.

[13]Interview with Israel Elias Mgaya from Yakobi-Njombe on 10^th October, 2020

[14] United Republic of Tanzania: Njombe District Council, Socio-economic Profile 2016), p.104

[15]Katare Mbashiru, the Citizen Reporter. Makinda Out of Race for parliament Speaker (the Citizen Friday November, 2015)

[16]Anne Makinda, op. cit., 20^th December, 2020

[17] Monica John, Ulingo wa Jinsia Toleo la 11Volume 46 Januari-Machi 2018), p.21

[18]Arthur Okwemba, Daudi Kayisi and Sikhonzile Ndlovu, Gender in the 2010 Tanzania Elections), p. 4

[19]Legal and Human Rights Centre: Performance Assessment Report of the 10th Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania 2010-2015), p. 38

[20] Monica John, op. cit., p.21

[21]A Guide to Using the SADC Model Law on Eradicating Child Marriage and Protecting Children Already in Marriage for Parliamentarians, Civil Society Organization and Youth Advocates

[22] UNICEF Executive Annual Report in 1994) p. 57

[23]Anne  Makinda op. cit. Also UNICEF Executive Annual Report in 1994), p. 77

[24] Ibid., p. 31

[25]A Guide to Using the SADC Model Law on Eradicating Child Marriage and Protecting Children Already in Marriage For Parliamentarians, Civil Society Organization and Youth Advocates

[26] Ibid.,mp.50