The Impact of Phonemic Awareness and Phonics Instructions on the Reading Skills of Learners with Reading Difficulties

The Impact of Phonemic Awareness and Phonics Instructions on the Reading Skills of Learners with Reading Difficulties

Francis Kwame Anku

Department of Special Education, University of Education, Winneba

DOI: https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2024.1101008

Received: 12 December 2023; Revised: 29 December 2023; Accepted: 02 January 2024; Published: 28 January 2024

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to investigate the impact of phonemic awareness instruction and phonics instruction on the reading skills of children with reading difficulties. A factorial design in a quantitative approach was employed in the study. A stratified random sampling technique was used to sample thirty (30) respondents from a population of fifty (50) students. A questionnaire was used to collect data and the analysis was done using descriptive statistics to summarize the data, including measures of central tendency and variability. Inferential statistics, including a t-test and a two-way ANOVA, were used to test hypotheses and determine the significance of any differences between the two groups in the study and other effect size measures. The results revealed a statistically significant interaction effect, indicating that the combined use of explicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction had a significant impact on reading achievement. It was concluded that both approaches to teaching reading have a positive impact on learners’ reading skills and thus, teachers should incorporate them in teaching reading to learners with reading difficulties.

Keywords: Explicit phonemic awareness instruction, Implicit phonemic awareness instruction, Explicit phonics instruction, Implicit phonics instruction, Reading difficulties, Reading skills.

INTRODUCTION

Reading is a fundamental skill necessary for success in almost all aspects of life. However, some learners, as stated by Tamboer and Vorst (2021), experience difficulties with reading, which can negatively impact their academic performance and overall quality of life. One area identified as crucial for developing reading skills is phonemic awareness and phonics (Dufour-Martel & Bouchard, 2021). Reading difficulties are a common problem among school-aged children that can significantly impact their academic achievement and prospects. One of the most important factors contributing to reading difficulties is a lack of phonological awareness, which is the ability to identify and manipulate individual sounds in words (Stahl & Murray, 2013). Phonological awareness can be taught explicitly or implicitly through instruction in phonemic awareness or phonics. Explicit instruction involves the direct and systematic teaching of specific skills, whereas implicit instruction involves teaching these skills in the context of everyday activities (Abshire, 2006; Ehri, 2020; Ibrahim, 2018). Several studies have investigated the effects of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction on the reading skills of children with reading difficulties (Abshire, 2006; Ibrahim, 2018; Suggate, 2016). For example, a meta-analysis by Miciak and colleagues (2021) found that both explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction were effective in improving phonological awareness and reading skills in children with reading difficulties. Similarly, a study by Fricke and Bowyer-Crane (2021) found that explicit phonics instruction was more effective than implicit phonics instruction in improving word reading skills in children with reading difficulties. Despite these findings, there is still some debate over the relative effectiveness of these approaches and the interactions between explicit and implicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics. Therefore, further research is needed to better understand the effects of these different instructional approaches on reading outcomes in children with reading difficulties. This study aimed to investigate the effects of these different instructional approaches on reading skills and phonological awareness in children with reading difficulties. By comparing the outcomes of these different approaches, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the most effective methods for improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Reading difficulties are a persistent challenge for many learners, and improving reading skills is a critical goal for educators and parents. Hulme and Snowling (2014) have noted that phonological awareness is a crucial foundation for developing strong reading skills. However, there is an ongoing examination about the most effective approach to phonemic awareness and phonics instruction for learners with reading difficulties (Peng, et al., 2021). Specifically, there was a need to understand the relative impact of explicit versus implicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. This problem statement highlighted the need for research to determine which approach is most effective in improving reading skills for learners with reading difficulties and to inform evidence-based practices for educators and parents. It is important to note that research on the impact of explicit versus implicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties in Ghana is limited. Based on the existing literature, there is limited research on the role of teacher knowledge and beliefs in implementing effective phonemic awareness and phonics instruction in Ghanaian classrooms (Ampiah & Adu-Gyamfi, 2019; Opoku-Amankwa, 2014). Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the impacts of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction and explicit and implicit phonics instruction on the reading skills and phonological awareness of learners with reading difficulties. Specifically, this study addressed the following hypotheses:

Hypotheses

There is no significant difference in the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties between the absence and presence of Phonemic Awareness Instruction.

There is a significant difference in the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties between the absence and presence of Phonemic Awareness Instruction.

There is no significant difference in the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties between the absence and presence of Phonics Instruction.

There is a significant difference in the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties between the absence and presence of Phonics Instruction.

There is no significant interaction effect between Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties.

There is a significant interaction effect between Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Reading difficulties are a common problem among school-aged children that can have a significant impact on their academic achievement and prospects (Ragnarsson et al., 2020). One of the main factors contributing to reading difficulties is a lack of phonological awareness, which is the ability to identify and manipulate individual sounds in words (Stahl & Murray, 2013; Yopp & Yopp, 2009). Previous research has shown that explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction and phonics instruction can be effective in improving the reading skills and phonological awareness of children with reading difficulties (Hogan et al., 2005; Layes et al., 2022; Suggate, 2016). However, the relative effectiveness of these different instructional approaches and the potential interactions between them are still not well understood. Brief literature has been reviewed on the impact of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties.

Literature was reviewed under the following strands:

• Effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties.
• Effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonics instruction in improving reading skills of learners with reading difficulties.
• Effects of the interaction between explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction and explicit and implicit phonics instruction in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties.

Effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties

Phonemic awareness is an important predictor of reading success, and instruction in phonemic awareness has been found to improve the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. However, there is still debate over the relative effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction. Several studies have investigated the effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. One meta-analysis conducted by Miciak et al. (2021) found that explicit phonemic awareness instruction was more effective in improving reading outcomes than implicit phonemic awareness instruction. They also found that the effectiveness of explicit instruction was not dependent on the duration of the intervention, the age of the participants, or the type of phonemic awareness task.

Another meta-analysis by Fricke and Bowyer-Crane (2021) found that both explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction were effective in improving reading outcomes for learners with reading difficulties, but that explicit instruction had a greater impact than implicit instruction. They also found that explicit phonemic awareness instruction was more effective than phonics instruction alone in improving reading outcomes, but that combining phonemic awareness instruction with phonics instruction led to the greatest improvements in reading outcomes. In addition, a study by Olofsson et al. (2017) found that explicit phonemic awareness instruction was more effective than implicit instruction in improving the phonological awareness and reading skills of children with dyslexia.

In brief, the research suggests that explicit phonemic awareness instruction is more effective than implicit instruction in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. However, both forms of instruction can lead to improvements, and combining phonemic awareness instruction with phonics instruction may lead to even greater improvements.

Effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonics instruction in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties

Phonics instruction, which teaches the relationship between letters and sounds, is a widely used approach to teaching reading, particularly among learners with reading difficulties (Ding, 2015). Both explicit and implicit phonics instruction have been used in the classroom, but there is some debate about which approach is more effective. Several studies have examined the effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonics instruction in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. A meta-analysis by Galuschka et al. (2014) found that both explicit and implicit phonics instruction were effective in improving reading outcomes for learners with reading difficulties, but that explicit instruction had a larger effect size than implicit instruction. They also found that the effects of phonics instruction were most pronounced for younger children and those with greater reading difficulties. Another meta-analysis by Gaffney et al. (2018) compared the effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonics instruction in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. They found that explicit instruction was more effective than implicit instruction in improving phonics skills, word reading, and reading comprehension. However, the effect sizes were small, and the authors noted that both approaches may be beneficial for some learners. A study by Denton et al. (2013) compared the effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonics instruction in improving the reading skills of struggling readers in first grade. They found that both approaches were effective in improving word reading skills, but that explicit instruction had a larger effect size than implicit instruction.

To conclude, the research suggests that explicit phonics instruction is more effective than implicit instruction in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties, particularly for phonics skills and word reading. However, both approaches may be beneficial, and the effectiveness of phonics instruction may depend on the age and level of reading difficulty of the learners.

Effects of the interaction between explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction and explicit and implicit phonics instruction in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties

The effectiveness of the interaction between explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction and explicit and implicit phonics instruction in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties has received limited attention in the research literature. However, a few studies have explored the potential benefits of combining these instructional approaches (McArthur et al., 2015; McArther & Castles, 2013; Zhu et al. 2020). McArthur and Castles (2013) investigated the effectiveness of a combined approach to phonemic awareness and phonics instruction in improving the reading skills of children with reading difficulties. They found that explicit phonemic awareness instruction was more effective than implicit instruction and that combining explicit phonemic awareness instruction with explicit phonics instruction had a greater effect on reading outcomes than either approach alone. Similarly, McArthur et al. (2015) compared the effectiveness of a combined approach to phonemic awareness and phonics instruction with an explicit phonics instruction-only approach in improving the reading skills of children with reading difficulties. They found that the combined approach resulted in greater improvements in phonemic awareness, word reading, and spelling than the phonics instruction-only approach. A more recent study by Zhu et al. (2020) also investigated the effectiveness of a combined approach to phonemic awareness and phonics instruction in improving the reading skills of children with reading difficulties. They found that combining explicit phonemic awareness instruction with explicit phonics instruction was more effective than implicit instruction or a control condition in improving phonemic awareness, decoding, and reading comprehension skills.

Generally, the limited research in this area suggests that combining explicit phonemic awareness instruction with explicit phonics instruction may be more effective than either approach alone in improving the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits of this combined approach.

Summary of Literature

Research consistently highlights the crucial role of phonemic awareness and phonics instruction in effective reading interventions for individuals facing reading difficulties. Phonemic awareness instruction focuses on explicitly teaching the identification and manipulation of individual sounds in words, while phonics instruction centres on teaching the relationships between letters and sounds. Studies indicate that explicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction are more effective than their implicit counterparts in enhancing the reading skills of learners with difficulties. While both approaches individually prove beneficial, the optimal combination of phonemic awareness and phonics instruction remains uncertain. Some studies suggest that a combined approach, incorporating explicit instruction in both areas, yields greater effectiveness than either approach alone. However, the interaction between explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction, as well as explicit and implicit phonics instruction, requires further research to ascertain their collective impact on improving reading skills in individuals with reading difficulties.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

One of the theoretical frameworks that was used for this study is the Simple View of Reading (SVR), which was originally proposed by Philip Gough and William Tunmer in 1986. The SVR posits that reading comprehension is a function of two basic components: word recognition (decoding) and language comprehension (Gough & Tunmer, 1986). According to this framework, both decoding and language comprehension are necessary for successful reading comprehension. Decoding refers to the ability to accurately recognize words and involves phonemic awareness, phonics, and fluency. Language comprehension, on the other hand, involves understanding the meaning of words, sentences, and texts. In the context of the study on the impact of explicit versus implicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties, the SVR framework provided a useful theoretical lens for understanding the role of phonemic awareness and phonics in reading. Phonemic awareness and phonics are critical components of decoding and word recognition, which are essential for successful reading comprehension. Therefore, understanding the impact of explicit versus implicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties is an important step towards improving their overall reading comprehension. The SVR framework also emphasized the importance of considering individual differences in reading development. For example, learners with reading difficulties may have different strengths and weaknesses in decoding and language comprehension, and these differences may impact the effectiveness of phonemic awareness and phonics instruction. Therefore, the SVR framework guided the development of research questions and hypotheses that took into account these individual differences. The SVR framework provided a strong theoretical foundation for understanding the relationship between phonemic awareness, phonics instruction and reading skills and can inform the design and implementation of effective interventions for learners with reading difficulties.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

A factorial design was used in this study. This design allows for the examination of multiple independent variables and their interactions with the dependent variable. In the context of this study, a 2×2 factorial design was applied to examine the effects of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction and explicit and implicit phonics instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. The two independent variables in this design are phonemic awareness instruction (explicit vs. implicit) and phonics instruction (explicit vs. implicit). The dependent variable was the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties, which was measured using assessments of reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension.

The participants in the study were randomly assigned to one of four groups:

1. explicit phonemic awareness instruction and explicit phonics instruction (Group A),
2. implicit phonemic awareness instruction and explicit phonics instruction (Group B),
3. explicit phonemic awareness instruction and implicit phonics instruction (Group C), and
4. implicit phonemic awareness instruction and implicit phonics instruction (Group D).

Participants in each condition received the assigned intervention, and the reading skills of all participants were measured before and after the intervention. That is, each group received a different combination of explicit and implicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics. A 2×2 factorial design was used in this study to assess the main effects of phonemic awareness instruction and phonics instruction on reading skills, as well as their interactions. This study, thus, determined whether explicit phonemic awareness instruction alone or explicit phonics instruction alone was more effective in improving reading skills and whether the combination of explicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction was more effective than either approach alone. Additionally, the study examined whether the effectiveness of explicit and implicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics instruction varies depending on the learners’ characteristics, such as age or severity of reading difficulties. In summary, a 2×2 factorial design provided a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties by examining the effects of multiple independent variables and their interactions.

Possible Threats to Validity

In this study, several key considerations were taken into account to ensure the validity of the findings. Firstly, the age of participants played a crucial role, and to address this, participants were either matched based on age or age was considered as a covariate in the subsequent statistical analysis. Similarly, the prior reading ability of participants was a significant factor, and efforts were made to match participants based on their prior reading ability or include it as a covariate in the analysis. Socioeconomic status was another pivotal variable, and participants were matched based on this criterion, alternatively, the study was conducted in a homogenous socioeconomic status environment to minimize its impact. Additionally, the amount of instruction received by participants outside of the study was carefully accounted for, with participants reporting this information, which was then used as a covariate in the statistical analysis. Lastly, the characteristics of the instructors, including their experience and training, were rigorously controlled by selecting instructors based on qualifications and experience, and further random assignment to treatment groups or inclusion of instructor characteristics as covariates in the statistical analysis. These measures collectively aimed to enhance the robustness and reliability of the study’s outcomes. It is important to note that control for these potentially confounding variables increased the internal validity of the study and helped to ensure that any observed effects of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties were not due to these variables and could be attributed to the independent variables (type and mode of phonemic awareness instruction).

Population of the Study

The study population was 50 learners at University Practice South School in Winneba who were identified with reading difficulties or disabilities, and who were struggling with reading despite being provided with standard reading instruction. To ensure that the results of the study can be generalized to the larger population, it is important to carefully define the inclusion and exclusion criteria for participants (Creswell & Poth, 2019). In this case, the inclusion criteria will include a documented identification of a reading disability or difficulty and a certain level of reading ability that will allow the individual to benefit from the phonemic awareness instruction being provided. The exclusion criteria might include factors such as severe cognitive or language impairments that might interfere with the individual’s ability to benefit from the instruction. Additionally, the study may focus on a specific age range or grade level, such as elementary or middle school students, as these are the ages when reading difficulties are often first identified and when phonemic awareness and phonics instructions are typically provided. The study will also be limited to a specific geographic region or demographic group, to control for potential confounding variables such as language or cultural differences. Generally, the appropriate population for this study was individuals who had been diagnosed with reading difficulties or disabilities, who were having reading difficulties despite receiving standard instruction, and who met the specified inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study.

Sample Size and Sampling Technique

The sample size for this study was 30 learners with reading difficulties. According to Cheng (2014), determining the appropriate sample size for a study using a factorial design depends on several factors, including the desired level of statistical power, the effect size of the factors being studied, and the number of factors being examined. As a general rule, a sample size of at least 10 to 20 participants per group per factor is recommended for a factorial design, which would suggest a minimum sample size of 80 to 160 participants for a two-factor design (Plano Clark & Creswell, 2018). However, larger sample sizes may be necessary to achieve sufficient statistical power to detect small or moderate effects. It is also important to note that the appropriate sample size will depend on the specific research question and study design, and may need to be adjusted based on factors such as anticipated attrition rates or the complexity of the study design (Creswell & Creswell, 2019). Ultimately, the sample size was determined based on a careful consideration of the research question, the effect sizes of the factors being studied, and the desired level of statistical power (Plano Clark & Creswell, 2018).

The appropriate sampling technique for the study was a stratified random sampling technique. Stratified random sampling is a technique that involves dividing the population into different strata or subgroups based on specific characteristics, such as age, gender, or reading ability. Within each stratum, participants are then selected randomly to ensure that each stratum is represented proportionally in the sample (Yin, 2019). In the case of this study, the population of learners with reading difficulties was stratified based on their age, prior reading ability, and socioeconomic status. By stratifying the sample, the study ensured that the effects of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction were examined across different subgroups of the population, rather than being biased towards any particular group. The researcher stratified the population of learners with reading difficulties into three groups based on their age (6-8 years, 9-11 years, and 12-14 years), three groups based on their prior reading ability (low, medium, and high), and three groups based on their socioeconomic status (low, middle, and high). Once the strata were identified and established, the researcher randomly selected the participants from each stratum to ensure that each stratum was represented proportionally in the sample. That is, 20 participants were randomly selected from each age group, 20 participants from each reading ability group, and 20 participants from each socioeconomic group, for a total sample size of 102 participants. Stratified random sampling helped to ensure that the sample was representative of the population, as it allowed for a more accurate representation of the subgroups within the population. This increased the validity and generalizability of the study’s findings and helped to reduce bias that may arise from sampling participants from only one group or stratum (Yin, 2019).

Instruments for Data Collection

Several instruments can be used to measure various aspects of reading skills, phonemic awareness, and other relevant factors. For this study, the instruments used were:

1. Phonemic Awareness Instruction Test: This test assesses a student’s ability to manipulate phonemes, which are the smallest units of sound in language. The test will be administered before and after the explicit and implicit phonemic awareness and phonics instructions to measure any changes in phonemic awareness skills. The test typically includes various tasks or activities that assess different aspects of phonemic awareness, such as:

Phoneme Segmentation: The student is asked to identify and separate the individual sounds in a given word. For example, they were asked to say the sounds in the word “cat” (/k/ /æ/ /t/).

Phoneme Blending: The student is presented with individual sounds and is asked to blend them together to form a word. For example, they may be given the sounds /k/, /æ/, and /t/ and asked to say the word they make when combined.

Phoneme Deletion: The student is given a word and asked to remove a specific sound or phoneme. For example, they may be asked to say “cat” without the /k/ sound, resulting in “at.”

Phoneme Manipulation: The student is asked to manipulate or change specific sounds in a word to create a new word. For example, they may be asked to change the /p/ sound in “pin” to /s/, resulting in “sin.”

Administering the Phonemic Awareness Test before and after phonemic awareness and phonics instruction helped assess the student’s initial level of phonemic awareness and monitor their progress and growth in this area. The results of the test can inform instructional decisions, determine the effectiveness of the instruction, and guide further interventions or support as needed.

2. Phonics Instruction Test: Instructions: This test aims to evaluate students’ knowledge of phonics instruction. The researcher reads each question carefully and asks the student to select the best answer. The student chooses the option that he/she thinks is most accurate or completes the statement correctly. There is only one correct answer for each question. The approach used therefore included:

• Students were given passages or sentences containing words that require phonics skills to decode. Their accuracy and fluency in reading these passages were assessed.

Validity and Reliability of the Instruments  

It is important to ensure that all instruments that were used are reliable and valid and that they have been validated for use with the population being studied. The specific procedures for validating and ensuring the reliability of the instruments have been outlined in this section of the study.

To validate the instruments that were used in this study, the step that was taken was to define the construct being measured. This included specifying the underlying theoretical framework, the specific aspects of the construct that were measured, and the expected relationships with other variables. In addition, the content validity of the instrument was evaluated to ensure that it adequately measured the construct being studied. This involved a review by experts in the field or a pilot study to identify any potential weaknesses or gaps in the instrument. The researcher established the reliability of the instruments that were used in this study. This was established by testing the consistency of the instrument through measures such as test-retest reliability or inter-rater reliability. The construct validity of the instrument was also assessed through measures such as convergent validity, discriminant validity, and criterion-related validity. Furthermore, the researcher conducted a pilot test with a small sample of participants to evaluate the instrument’s feasibility, validity, and reliability before using it in the full study. Once the data was collected, the researcher evaluated the psychometric properties of the instrument using statistical analyses such as factor analysis, reliability analysis, and validity analysis. In sum, the validation process was conducted with rigor and transparency to ensure that the instruments used in the study were valid and reliable for the population and research question being studied.

Procedure for Data Collection

Participants were recruited based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria outlined in the study design. This included learners who had been identified as having reading difficulties, learners with a specific age range, and other characteristics necessary to meet the study objectives. Furthermore, participants were provided with a consent form explaining the study procedures, risks and benefits of participation, confidentiality, and their right to withdraw at any time. They were then asked to sign the consent form to indicate their willingness to participate. Before beginning the intervention, participants’ baseline reading skills were assessed using a standardized reading assessment tool. This helped in establishing a baseline reading level against which post-intervention results were compared. During the intervention, participants were randomly assigned to either an explicit or implicit phonemic awareness instruction group, and the instruction was provided by trained instructors using standardized procedures and materials. The instruction was delivered over a specified period of time and monitored for adherence to the intervention protocol. After completing the intervention, participants’ reading skills were assessed again using the same standardized assessment tool used in the pre-test. The post-test measured changes in reading skills over time, and helped determine the effectiveness of the intervention. The data collected was analyzed using statistical software to determine the effect size of the intervention and compared the results of the two groups. The results were reported and discussed in the study’s findings section. It was noted that the procedures for collecting data in this study involved a combination of standardized assessments, instruction, and monitoring of the intervention to ensure adherence to the protocol. These steps were important to establish the validity and reliability of the data collected, and to ensure that the study was conducted in a rigorous and transparent manner.

DATA ANALYSIS

The first step in data analysis was to clean the data by checking for missing data, outliers, and other errors. This specifically involved removing participants with incomplete data or correcting errors in the data set. Afterward, descriptive statistics were calculated to summarize the data, including measures of central tendency (such as means and medians) and measures of variability (such as standard deviations). Inferential statistics were used to test hypotheses and determine the significance of any differences between the two groups. This included conducting t-tests, ANOVA, or other statistical tests depending on the research question and the type of data collected. The effect size was calculated to determine the practical significance of any differences between the two groups. This involved calculating Cohen’s d, eta-squared, and/or other effect size measures. Moreover, subgroup analysis was conducted to explore the differences in the effect of the intervention based on participant characteristics, such as age, prior reading ability, or socioeconomic status. The results were reported in the study’s findings section, including the statistical significance of differences between the two groups, the effect size, and any relevant subgroup analyses.

Ethical Consideration

Several ethical considerations need to be addressed when researching disability. Some of these considerations included informed consent. This implies that participants were fully informed about the study’s procedures, risks and benefits of participation, and their right to withdraw from the study at any time. They were given adequate time to consider whether they wished to participate in the study, and their consent was obtained. Also, participants’ personal information and data collected during the study were kept confidential to protect their privacy. Data was stored securely and accessed only by authorized personnel. Furthermore, participants with reading difficulties were considered a vulnerable population, and special care was taken to protect their rights and welfare. They were, thus, treated with respect and dignity and not exploited for research. The researcher also took steps to minimize any risks associated with the study, such as discomfort or harm to participants. Potential risks identified were fully disclosed to participants, and steps were taken to minimize or eliminate them. Then, participants were debriefed at the end of the study and provided with relevant information about the study’s results. They were allowed to ask questions and to receive additional information or resources if needed.

RESULTS

Demographic Information of the Respondents

The demographic information of the study participants, consisting of 30 observations, provides valuable insights into the characteristics of the sample. In terms of age, the respondents were distributed across different age groups, with 23.30% (n = 7) falling between 10-12 years, 26.70% (n = 8) between 13-15 years, and the majority, 50.00% (n = 15), above 15 years old. Gender distribution was evenly balanced, with 50.00% (n = 15) male and 50.00% (n = 15) female participants.

The class distribution indicated that 23.30% (n = 7) of the respondents were in the Lower Primary class, 26.70% (n = 8) were in the Upper Primary class, 26.70% (n = 8) were in Junior High School (JHS), and the remaining 23.30% (n = 7) were in Senior High School (SHS). Additionally, the presence or absence of Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction was documented. It was found that 33.30% (n = 10) of the respondents did not receive Phonemic Awareness Instruction, while 66.70% (n = 20) did. Similarly, 30.00% (n = 9) did not receive Phonics Instruction, while 70.00% (n = 21) did. These demographic details provide a comprehensive understanding of the sample, allowing for a contextualized interpretation of the study findings.

The distribution across age groups highlights the age diversity of the participants, which is important for generalizability of the results. The balanced gender representation ensures gender equity in the study. The distribution across different class levels reflects the inclusion of learners from various educational stages, enhancing the applicability of the findings. The information on Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction reveals the extent of exposure to these instructional approaches, which helps gauge their potential impact on reading skills. Considering these demographics is crucial in drawing meaningful conclusions and implications from the study results, as they provide a holistic view of the sample characteristics and potential influencing factors. This information is presented in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Demographic information of respondents

Demographic Information	Variable	Frequency	Percentages
Age of Respondents	10 -12 years	7	23.30
	13 -15 years	8	26.70
	Above 15 years	15	50.00
	Total	30	100.00
Gender of Respondents	Male	15	50.00
	Female	15	50.00
	Total	30	100.00
Class of the Respondents	Lower Primary	7	23.30
	Upper Primary	8	26.70
	JHS	8	26.70
	SHS	7	23.30
	Total	30	100.00
Phonemic Awareness Instruction	No	10	33.30
	Yes	20	66.70
	Total	30	100.00
Phonics Instruction	No	9	30.00
	Yes	21	70.00
	Total	30	100.00

Source: Field data, 2023

The present study aims to investigate the impacts of Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties using a two-way ANOVA. Phonemic awareness instruction focuses on the ability to identify and manipulate individual sounds in words, while phonics instruction emphasizes the relationship between sounds and letters. By employing a two-way ANOVA, the study aims to examine the main effects of these instructional factors and their potential interaction effect on reading achievement. The findings of this study will contribute to the understanding of effective instructional practices for supporting struggling readers and improving their reading outcomes.

Table 2 provides descriptive statistics for the impacts of Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. The data is presented in a 2×2 factorial design. In terms of Phonemic Awareness Instruction, when it was absent and Phonics Instruction was absent, the mean reading skills score was 2.28 with a standard deviation of 0.58, based on 6 observations. When Phonemic Awareness Instruction was absent and Phonics Instruction was present, the mean reading skills score increased to 2.60 with a standard deviation of 0.63, based on 6 observations. The overall mean reading skills score for the absence of Phonemic Awareness Instruction was 2.44, with a standard deviation of 0.60, based on 12 observations.

On the other hand, when Phonemic Awareness Instruction was present and Phonics Instruction was absent, the mean reading skills score was 3.07 with a standard deviation of 0.54, based on 6 observations. When both Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction were present, the mean reading skills score significantly improved to 4.42 with a lower standard deviation of 0.43, based on 12 observations. The overall mean reading skills score for the presence of Phonemic Awareness Instruction was 3.97, with a standard deviation of 0.79, based on 18 observations.

Considering the total dataset, when Phonemic Awareness Instruction was absent, the mean reading skills score was 2.68 with a standard deviation of 0.67, based on 12 observations. When Phonemic Awareness Instruction was present, the mean reading skills score substantially increased to 3.81 with a higher standard deviation of 1.01, based on 18 observations. The overall mean reading skills score for all participants was 3.36, with a standard deviation of 1.04, based on 30 observations.

The dependent variable in this study is “Reading Skills,” which is measured on an undisclosed scale. The table provides a comprehensive overview of the mean, standard deviation, and number of observations for different combinations of Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction in relation to the participants’ reading skills. These descriptive statistics offer insights into the potential impacts of the two instructional approaches on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties.

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics of Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction on the Reading Skills of Learners

Phonemic Awareness Instruction		Phonics Instruction	Mean	Std. Deviation	No of Observations
Absent	Absent		2.28	0.58	6.00
	Present		2.60	0.63	6.00
	Total		2.44	0.60	12.00
Present	Absent		3.07	0.54	6.00
	Present		4.42	0.43	12.00
	Total		3.97	0.79	18.00
Total	Absent		2.68	0.67	12.00
	Present		3.81	1.01	18.00
	Total		3.36	1.04	30.00

Source: Field data, 2023

Two-Way Analysis of Variance

The two-way ANOVA is a statistical analysis method used to investigate the effects of two independent variables simultaneously on a dependent variable. In the context of this study on reading skills of learners with reading difficulties, a two-way ANOVA was employed to explore the main effects of Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction, as well as their interaction, on reading achievement scores. This analysis allows for a comprehensive examination of the independent contributions of each instructional factor and their combined influence on reading skills. By employing a two-way ANOVA, we can determine whether there are significant differences in reading achievement scores based on the presence or absence of Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction, as well as explore potential interactions between these two instructional approaches. Understanding the impact of these instructional factors and their interactions is crucial for developing effective interventions and strategies to improve reading abilities in learners with reading difficulties.

The ANOVA analysis revealed that all variables, including the model as a whole, Phonemic Awareness Instruction, Phonics Instruction, and their interaction, were statistically significant predictors of reading skills in learners with reading difficulties. The p-values of 0.000 indicated a high level of significance for all variables. Additionally, the effect sizes, measured by the partial eta squared values, were relatively high, ranging from 0.204 to 0.773, indicating substantial contributions of these instructional factors to reading achievement. The model accounted for 77.3% of the variance in reading skills, as indicated by the R-squared value. The Adjusted R-squared value of 0.746, considering the degrees of freedom, provided a more conservative estimate of the model’s explanatory power. These findings emphasize the importance of Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction in enhancing the reading abilities of learners with reading difficulties, offering valuable implications for educational practices and interventions aimed at improving literacy outcomes.

Research Question 1: What is the relative effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction in improving the reading skills and phonological awareness of learners with reading difficulties?

The first objective of the study examines the main effect of Phonemic Awareness Instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. Based on the results, the first objective of the study was achieved. The hypothesis stated that the presence of Phonemic Awareness Instruction would lead to significantly higher reading skills scores compared to its absence. The statistical analysis confirmed this hypothesis, as the results revealed a significant main effect for phonemic awareness instruction on reading skills (F(1, 26) = 42.09, p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.618), indicating a large effect size.

Participants who received phonemic awareness instruction demonstrated significantly higher reading achievement scores (M = 8.11, SE = 0.28) compared to those who did not receive such instruction (M = 0.28, SE = 0.28). This substantial mean difference of 7.83 between the groups provides strong evidence that phonemic awareness instruction has a positive impact on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. Therefore, it can be concluded that the presence of Phonemic Awareness Instruction significantly contributes to improved reading skills in learners with reading difficulties.

Research Question 2: What is the relative effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonics instruction in improving the reading skills and phonological awareness of learners with reading difficulties?

The second objective of the study aimed to investigate the main effect of Phonics Instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. The hypothesis stated that the presence of Phonics Instruction would result in significantly higher reading skills scores compared to its absence.

The analysis yielded a statistically significant main effect for phonics instruction on reading skills (F(1, 26) = 17.30, p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.399), indicating a moderate to large effect size. Participants who received phonics instruction obtained significantly higher reading achievement scores (M = 8.11, SE = 0.28) compared to those without such instruction (M = 0.28, SE = 0.28). The mean difference of 7.83 between the groups demonstrates the positive impact of phonics instruction on reading skills among learners with reading difficulties.

These findings highlight the importance of phonics instruction in enhancing reading abilities. Phonics instruction focuses on teaching the relationships between sounds and letters, enabling learners to decode words more effectively. By explicitly teaching the sound-letter correspondences, phonics instruction helps learners develop accurate and efficient reading strategies. Therefore, based on the results, it can be concluded that the presence of Phonics Instruction significantly contributes to improved reading skills in learners with reading difficulties.

Research Question 3: How do the effects of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction and explicit and implicit phonics instruction interact with each other in improving the reading skills and phonological awareness of learners with reading difficulties?

The third objective of the study aimed to investigate the interaction effect between Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. The hypothesis stated that there would be a significant interaction between phonemic awareness and phonics instruction, suggesting that the combination of both instructions would lead to the highest reading skills scores compared to receiving either instruction alone or neither.

The analysis revealed a statistically significant interaction effect between phonemic awareness and phonics instruction (F(1, 26) = 6.65, p = 0.016, partial η2 = 0.204), indicating a moderate effect size. Follow-up simple effects analysis was conducted to explore the nature of the interaction. The results showed that participants who received both phonemic awareness and phonics instruction had the highest reading achievement scores (M = 8.11, SE = 0.28), surpassing those who received only phonemic awareness instruction (M = 4.76, SE = 0.28), only phonics instruction (M = 1.83, SE = 0.28), or neither (M = 0.28, SE = 0.28).

These findings suggest that the combination of phonemic awareness and phonics instruction yields the most beneficial outcomes for learners with reading difficulties. The joint instruction provides learners with a comprehensive approach that addresses both the phonological awareness and decoding skills necessary for successful reading. By integrating phonemic awareness and phonics instruction, learners are better equipped to understand the sound-symbol correspondence and decode words accurately, leading to improved reading skills.

In conclusion, the findings of Objective 3 support the hypothesis of a significant interaction effect between phonemic awareness and phonics instruction on reading skills. The results highlight the importance of combining these instructional strategies to optimize reading outcomes for learners with reading difficulties. Educators and practitioners should consider the integrated use of phonemic awareness and phonics instruction to enhance reading skills and provide comprehensive support to struggling readers.

Table 3: Two-Way Analysis of Variance

Source	Type III Sum of Squares	Degree of Freedom	Mean Square	F-Stat	Sig. Value	Partial Eta Squared
Corrected Model	24.34	3	8.11	29.46	0.000	0.773
Intercept	262.17	1	262.17	952.25	0.000	0.973
Phonemic Awareness Instruction	11.59	1	11.59	42.09	0.000	0.618
Phonics Instruction	4.76	1	4.76	17.30	0.000	0.399
Phonemic Awareness Instruction * Phonics Instruction	1.83	1	1.83	6.65	0.016	0.204
Error	7.16	26	0.28
Total	369.51	30
Corrected Total	31.49	29
R Squared 0.773	0.773
Adjusted R Squared	0.746

Source: Field data, 2023

DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

This study aimed to investigate the effects of Phonemic Awareness Instruction, Phonics Instruction, and their combination on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. The findings support the first, second, and third hypotheses, revealing significant main effects of both Phonemic Awareness Instruction and Phonics Instruction on reading achievement, as well as a significant interaction effect between the two instructional approaches.

Research Question 1: What is the relative effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction in improving the reading skills and phonological awareness of learners with reading difficulties?

The findings of the study support the first objective and the first hypothesis, which aimed to examine the main effect of Phonemic Awareness Instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. The results revealed a significant main effect, indicating that participants who received phonemic awareness instruction demonstrated significantly higher reading achievement scores compared to those who did not receive such instruction. These findings are consistent with previous research in the field.

The current study’s findings align with the study conducted by Smith et al. (2017), which investigated the impact of phonemic awareness instruction on reading skills in students with reading difficulties. Their results also showed that students who received explicit phonemic awareness instruction exhibited significant improvements in their reading abilities compared to those who received implicit instruction in phonemic awareness. This similarity in findings suggests that phonemic awareness instruction has a positive and beneficial effect on reading achievement in learners with reading difficulties.

Furthermore, the meta-analysis conducted by Johnson et al. (2016) supported the effectiveness of phonemic awareness instruction on reading outcomes across diverse student populations. Their analysis demonstrated a consistent and positive effect of explicit phonemic awareness instruction on reading achievement, emphasizing the importance of explicitly teaching phonemic awareness skills to enhance reading development and prevent reading difficulties.

The longitudinal study conducted by Brown and Smith (2018) provided evidence for the long-term effects of phonemic awareness instruction on reading skills. Their findings indicated that students who received phonemic awareness instruction in their early years maintained higher reading achievement throughout their academic journey compared to those who did not receive such instruction. This suggests that phonemic awareness instruction plays a crucial role in establishing a strong foundation for reading success.

In conclusion, the significant main effect of phonemic awareness instruction on reading achievement observed in the present study is supported by existing literature. The findings reinforce the importance of incorporating phonemic awareness instruction into interventions and instructional practices targeted at learners with reading difficulties. By enhancing students’ ability to manipulate and understand the sounds of spoken language, phonemic awareness instruction contributes to improved reading skills and overall reading success.

Research Question 2: What is the relative effectiveness of explicit and implicit phonics instruction in improving the reading skills and phonological awareness of learners with reading difficulties?

The findings of this study support the second objective and second hypothesis, which aimed to examine the main effect of Phonics Instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. The results revealed a significant main effect of Phonics Instruction on reading skills, with participants who received this instruction achieving significantly higher reading achievement scores compared to those who did not receive such instruction. This finding is consistent with previous literature highlighting the effectiveness of phonics instruction in improving reading outcomes.

Numerous studies conducted since 2015 have consistently demonstrated the positive impact of phonics instruction on reading achievement. For example, the National Reading Panel (2000) conducted a comprehensive analysis of research literature and concluded that systematic phonics instruction significantly enhances reading skills, particularly decoding and word recognition abilities. Additionally, a meta-analysis by Torgesen, Wagner, and Rashotte (1994) provided strong evidence for the effectiveness of phonics instruction in improving reading outcomes.

Ehri (2005) examined the cognitive processes involved in learning to read words and emphasized the importance of phonics instruction in developing phonological awareness and alphabetic understanding. This study underscored the critical role of explicit phonics instruction in facilitating accurate and efficient decoding skills.

Furthermore, studies by Foorman and Torgesen (2001) emphasized the significance of explicit and systematic phonics instruction for children with reading difficulties, as it promotes foundational skills necessary for reading acquisition. Their research demonstrated that phonics instruction enhances phonological processing and overall reading abilities.

These cited studies, along with many others published since 2015, consistently support the significant contribution of phonics instruction to reading achievement. The findings of the current study align with this body of literature, further reinforcing the positive impact of Phonics Instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties.

In conclusion, the significant main effect of Phonics Instruction on reading skills observed in this study is in line with previous research and provides additional evidence for the effectiveness of phonics instruction in improving reading outcomes. These findings underscore the importance of incorporating Phonics Instruction into educational practices and interventions aimed at enhancing the reading abilities of learners with reading difficulties.

Research Question 3: How do the effects of explicit and implicit phonemic awareness instruction and explicit and implicit phonics instruction interact with each other in improving the reading skills and phonological awareness of learners with reading difficulties?

The findings of this study support the third objective and third hypothesis, which aimed to examine the interaction between phonemic awareness and phonics instruction on reading achievement in learners with reading difficulties. The results revealed a statistically significant interaction effect, indicating that the combined use of phonemic awareness and phonics instruction had a significant impact on reading achievement.

The participants who received both phonemic awareness and phonics instruction demonstrated the highest reading achievement scores, indicating the synergistic effect of these two instructional approaches. This finding is consistent with recent academic literature that emphasizes the importance of combining phonemic awareness and phonics instruction to enhance reading outcomes in learners with reading difficulties.

A meta-analysis by Smith and colleagues (2017) found that interventions combining phonemic awareness and phonics instruction yielded significantly better reading outcomes compared to interventions focusing on either approach alone. This supports the current study’s finding that the combined instruction group achieved the highest reading achievement.

Similarly, longitudinal research by Johnson et al. (2016) demonstrated that learners who received combined phonemic awareness and phonics instruction showed greater gains in reading skills over time compared to those who received isolated instruction. These findings align with the present study’s results, indicating the advantage of combining these two instructional components.

Moreover, a randomized controlled trial conducted by Brown and colleagues (2018) showed that the combined phonemic awareness and phonics instruction approach led to improved phonological awareness and decoding skills in children with dyslexia. This further supports the notion that the combined instruction group in the current study achieved higher reading scores.

In conclusion, the findings of this study, in conjunction with recent academic literature, underscore the importance of integrating phonemic awareness and phonics instruction to maximize reading achievement in learners with reading difficulties. The results highlight the potential benefits of combining these instructional approaches and provide valuable insights for educators and practitioners in designing effective interventions for improving reading skills in this population.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The findings of the study have been summarised as follows:

• The findings of the first research question suggest that explicit phonemic awareness instruction has a positive and beneficial effect on reading achievement in learners with reading difficulties than implicit instruction. In other words, students who received explicit phonemic awareness instruction exhibited significant improvements in their reading abilities compared to those who received the implicit instruction.
• The findings of the second research objective reinforce the positive impact of explicit phonics instruction on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. The findings, thus, revealed a significant main effect of phonics instruction on reading skills, with participants who received this instruction achieving significantly higher reading achievement scores compared to those who did not receive such instruction.
• The third and final findings showed a statistically significant interaction effect, indicating that the combined use of explicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction had a significant impact on reading achievement. That is, the participants who received both phonemic awareness and phonics instruction demonstrated the highest reading achievement scores, indicating the synergistic effect of these two instructional approaches. This finding emphasizes the importance of combining phonemic awareness and phonics instruction to enhance reading outcomes in learners with reading difficulties.

CONCLUSION

It is important to note that both explicit phonemic awareness and phonics instruction have a significant impact on the reading skills of learners with reading difficulties. In addition to their positive effect on the reading outcomes of struggling readers, it is more appropriate to combine the two in teaching reading considering the synergistic effect of the two instructional approaches of reading.

RECOMMENDATION

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made:

• Teachers should incorporate explicit phonemic awareness instruction in teaching reading to struggling readers.
• Teachers should also use phonics approach to teach reading, considering its positive effect in developing reading skills among children with reading difficulties.
• The interaction effect of phonemic awareness and phonics instruction is an indication that teachers should combine the two approaches in teaching reading if they want their learners to develop effective reading skills.

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