Determinants of Job Stress among Fast Food Employees in Klang Valley, Malaysia

Determinants of Job Stress among Fast Food Employees in Klang Valley, Malaysia

Hazrina Ghazali^1*, Chng Yee Ying², Zuraina Dato’ Mansor³, Mohd Amar Ridham Othman⁴

^1,2Department of Food Service and Management, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

³School of Business and Economics, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor

⁴Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia

^*Corresponding Author

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2024.807205

Received: 29 June 2024; Accepted: 11 July 2024; Published: 17 August 2024

ABSTRACT

The booming of fast-food industry in Malaysia has led to a concerning increase in job stress among fast-food employees. Hence, the purpose of this study was to identify the key determinants of job stress and its impact on fast-food workplaces. In this study, four variables were used: working environment, job insecurity, person-organization fit, and compensation and benefits. The study was conducted in fast-food restaurants in the Klang Valley area. The primary data for this study was collected through quantitative approach from fast-food employees. A total of 210 sets of self-administered questionnaires was distributed and 201 sets of questionnaires were valid with 95.7% of response. After that, all the data was analyzed through Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27. The result found that the working environment was the most influential factor contributing to job stress. Results also showed that 72.7% of respondents, perceived high levels of stress in the fast-food restaurants. It was expected that findings from this study could suggest the organizations’ top management to highlight factors that could contribute to job stress and strategize ways to overcome employees’ job stress in the long run.

Keywords: Job Stress, Employees, Fast-food Industry, Klang Valley, Malaysia

INTRODUCTION

Fast food restaurant was a restaurant that served food that could be prepared quickly and offered minimal table service (Sumathi et al., 2019). It was also commonly known as a quick service restaurant (QSR) within the food and beverage (F&B) industry. Fast food restaurants were well known for their real quick service, reasonable price and bundle selections. Fast food was defined as a type of food that was prepared and served instantly. Also, even though any meal that could be quickly prepared falls under this category, the term commonly applied to food sold in restaurants or stores where pre-cooked or pre-heated ingredients, and the food was packaged for convenience to take-away (Ngozika & Ifeanyi, 2018).

According to Statista Research Department (2023), Malaysia had approximately 7.72 thousand fast food establishments, marking a surge increase from nearly seven thousand restaurants in the past few years. In addition, it also projected that the number of fast-food restaurants in Malaysia will continue to grow, reaching approximately more than 9 thousand outlets in 2026. Back in 1963, A&W made a significant mark in Malaysian history as the pioneer of fast-food restaurants in Malaysia by opening the first fast food restaurant in Petaling Jaya. It quickly gained popularity for its root beer floats, burgers and hot dogs. A decade later, in 1973, KFC was opened at Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman while the first McDonald’s opened its first outlet at Jalan Bukit Bintang in 1982. Even though McDonald’s was the latest to come to Malaysia, it has grown rapidly and become one of the leading fast-food chains in Malaysia just in a few years. Therefore, the fast-food industry was recognised as the food category that is growing the fastest in Malaysia, with a significant presence of international fast-food chains, such as McDonald’s, KFC, Pizza Hut, A&W and Subway, as well as local brands, such as Marrybrown.

With the rise of the fast-food industry in Malaysia, a scenario of sufficient number of employees was required to fulfill the growth. In other words, the high-level workloads and job stress related issues may be faced by most of the fast-food employees. AIA Malaysia (2018) stated that an increasing number of turnover rates are being reported in the workplace, with 50.2% of Malaysian workers reporting they are experiencing at least one type of work-related stress. Saidi (2019) also concluded that Malaysian workers are overworked and sleep deprived, with more than 50% suffering from work-related stress and they sleep less than 7 hours per night. Furthermore, when comfort loss and tension is caused at work, it will result in employees becoming more stressed. Thus, turnover rates will become a problem that increases the company’s recruitment costs, causes waste time, as well as causes the loss of prospective human resources (HR). Hence, the issue of job stress in the fast-food industry was crucial to study in advance instead of turnover intention though this study objective: To identify potential factors that influence the job stress among employees in the fast-food industry.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The current study and literature lacks longitudinal data, while many cross-sectional study examines job stress levels at a single point in time. Job stress can alter depending to work environment, management policies, and personal situations. Longitudinal research would reveal how job stress evolves and the long-term effects of stresses on personnel. Such an approach can reveal trends and causal correlations that cross-sectional research miss. This study’s quantitative approach provides useful data on occupations stress prevalence and factors. Meanwhile, a limited assessment of cultural, economic, and sociological implications on job stress is another gap in the literature. Economic conditions, labour market dynamics, and cultural attitudes towards work and stress affect fast-food sector. Economic downturn can exacerbate employment instability, and cultural norms might affect stress management. These contextual elements can improve job stress knowledge and influence culturally appropriate solutions. Recent studies have shown that these broader aspects affect job stress and should be considered in research (Hofstede, 2020; Lazarus & Folkman, 2022).

Technology’s influence on fast-food is also understudied. Automated ordering systems and kitchen equipment can reduce and increase labour stress. It can streamline processes and minimize physical workload, but technical issues, the need to learn and adapt, and job displacement anxieties can cause stress. Understanding how technology affects occupational stress is essential to creating balanced tactics that maximize its benefits and minimize its drawbacks. This topic has been studied, but more is needed (Byrnjolfsson & McAffee, 2017; Tarafdar et al., 2019). Finally, the study should emphasize policy implications and practical measures. Finding the causes of occupational stress is vital, but turning these findings into policies and interventions is crucial for actual charge. Management methods, workplace designs, employee support programmes, and regulatory charges are recommended. Job stress reduction techniques can be developed and implemented with industry stakeholders, policymakers, and mental health specialist. Cooper & Quick (2017) and Parker & Gryphon (2018) emphasise the relevance of such cooperation in reducing workplace stress.

Job Stress

The definition of stress could vary from person to person, and there is no only definition of the term. According to Harshana (2018), job stress was a response that arose when the demands of work became overwhelming. It could affect the well-being of employees and the overall health of the organization. Another study, Selye (1976) listed three criteria for defining stress. They concluded that: 1) stress was defined in the behavioural sciences as the feeling of threat with accompanying anxiety and discomfort; 2) in a group situation, stress was the problem of leadership and interpersonal behavior that results in someone having difficulty coping with the situation; 3) in the pure sciences, stress was any trigger for the release of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) and Adrenal Glucocorticoids.

As to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE, 2023), job stress refers to the negative response individuals experience when they face overwhelming pressures or other forms of demands. It mainly happens when employees perceived that they are unable to handle the obligations and responsibilities expected of them. While a moderate level of stress can serve as a source of motivation for employees and contribute to increased productivity, an excessive quantity of stress can have harmful consequences (Lazarus & Folkman, 2022). Furthermore, studies indicate that people react to stress in diverse manners, since individual coping strategies and perspectives vary (American Psychological Association, 2021). Radwan (2023) agrees that the fast-food industry is intrinsically stressful because of its demanding workload, lack of positive relationship between employees, and the fast speed of operations.

Working Environment

There are numerous researchers who have attempted to conceptualize the work environment.

The work environment refers to the physical locations, situations, settings, and contexts in which individuals carry out their work tasks (Armstrong, 2023). Recent research have classified the work environment into three primary components; the technical environment, the human environment, and the organizational environment (Sundstrom & Sundstrom, 2021). These factors collectively impact employees’ performance, well-being, and overall job satisfaction. According to data analysis of YouGov (2022), McDonald’s has been still the top 1 fast food favorites among Malaysians for the past few years. Therefore, as one of the targeted fast-food restaurants in this research, the working environment of McDonald’s would be one of the important keys to success. For instance, McDonald’s had received Best Employer Award from Kincentrix, in appreciation of their unwavering and excellent dedication to human resources management and talent development (McDonald’s Malaysia, 2023). This was due to McDonald’s ultimate goal was to create the preferred and favorite working place for its employees to work. In order to achieve this objective, the company prioritizes creating a positive work environment by treating its employees with respect and striving to improve their overall well-being.

According to Amran et al. (2020), the work environment has been shown to be an important factor in determining non-managerial employees’ turnover intention in the casual dining restaurant in West Malaysia. Also, the finding of Forrest (2017) claimed that the positive favorable and constructive work environment led to a decrease in stress and employee turnover among fast food employees. In addition, according to Athirah et al. (2019), their research indicated that a better work environment can reduce job stress and improve performance. Therefore, the hypothesis 1 (H1) in this study is “Working environment has a negative effect on job stress”.

Job Insecurity

The most-cited definition of job insecurity was defined as “the perception of inability to maintain continuity in his or her current precarious job position” (Greenhalgh & Rosenblatt, 1984). However, recent research have expended the term to include not just the dread of losing one’s job, but also concerns about worsening job conditions, limited career growth prospects, and the general stability of employment (Shoss, 2017; De Witte, Vander Elst, & De Cuyper, 2015).

The similarities among these definitions highlight the fact that a job insecurity is actually a unique stressor, apart from related concepts like unemployment, job mobility, or other workplace stressors. The majority of definitions of job insecurity include some or all of the following characteristics: (1) it involves a personal assessment of a threat to the work; (2) the threat implies alterations to the position that are undesirable and involuntary; and (3) it involves a feeling of anxious or apprehension about losing one’s job in its current situation (Vander et al., 2014; Sverke et al., 2019).

According to Naru (2020), job insecurity was positively correlated to employee stress in the fast-food industry. It meant if job insecurity increased among the fast-food employees, their job stress also increased and that in turn affects their job performance. In addition, the hypothesis of job insecurity having a significant positive effect on job stress is accepted (Shin, 2019). Hence, it can be concluded a higher level of job insecurity is directly related to a higher level of job stress. Thus, hypothesis 2 (H2) is “Job insecurity has a positive effect on job stress.”

Person-organisation Fit (P-O Fit)

Person-organization fit (P-O Fit) could be broadly defined as the compatibility between an individual and organizations that occurs when at least one entity fulfills the needs of the other or both of them share some similar fundamental characteristics (Fan, 2018; Wijesinghe, 2017). Recent research have shown that person-organization fit has a major impact on work attitudes and behaviours. When the values and goals of employees are in line with those of the organization, it results in increased job satisfaction, dedication, and overall job performance (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2020; Oh, Cho, & Lim, 2018). To support the statement, he found out that the employees who don’t have the same values as the organization, they more likely will feel more anxious and dissatisfied. Consequently, they will become less adept and less efficient in social interactions, especially when interacting with consumers. In short, it concluded that employees with low person-organization fit may provide consumers with lower-quality services.

Also, recent research indicates that the level of stress experienced employees in fast-food businesses may be affected by how well they fit with the organization. Employees who feel a strong alignment between their personal values and the organizational culture tend to have reduced levels of job stress (Rubenstein et al., 2020; Boon & Biron, 2016). This alignment can alleviate stressors inherent in fast-paced and demanding work conditions, such as those encountered in the fast-food business (Liu, Liu, & Lee, 2022). Hence, it might be suggested that employees with low personal-organization fit will experience stress and they find difficulty to adhere to organizational norms and rules as they are exhausted and overemphasis on stress. In order to help employees to minimize workplace stress, the organizations and employees must uphold the same values such as honesty to achieve organization goals (Pertiwi et al, 2021). Overall, high level P-O fit could enhance employees’ working conditions and help to reduce employee turnover in the industry. Therefore, hypothesis 3 (H3) is “Person-organization fit has a negative effect on job stress.”

Compensation and Benefits

Recent research suggests that the remuneration given by firms to employees in exchange for their work is commonly known as compensation. Compensation can be classified into two distinct categories; financial compensation and non-financial compensation. Financial compensation encompasses the consistent monetary incentive given to employees based on their performance, which may include wages, salaries, commissions, and bonuses (Milkovich, Newman, & Gerhart, 2023). In contrast, non-financial remuneration refers to rewards such as promotion prospects, acknowledgement, professional growth, and the ability to make independent decisions in one’s job (Armstrong & Taylor, 2022). Most of the organization will provide non-financial compensation in exchange for employees’ skills and effort in order to foster their job satisfaction.

According to Salary Explorer data (2023), the average salary per month for a fast-food restaurant manager in Malaysia was around RM8,180 with salaries ranging from RM4,420 (lowest) to RM12,400 (highest). However, the salaries may vary and depend on the location and the size of outlet. On the other hand, the average salary for a non-managerial at a fast-food restaurant was ranging from RM1500 (lowest) to RM3500 (highest) excluding overtime pay. According to Fariz and Puteh (2021), compensation had found a significant negative relationship on turnover intention among generation y employees in fast food restaurants. Continued by Adnan et al. (2018) found that providing fast food managers with higher compensation and benefits would experience less staff turnover. Hence, hypothesis 4 (H4) is “Compensation and benefit have a negative effect on job stress.”

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Figure 1: The Conceptual Framework

HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis 1 (H1): Working environment has a negative effect on job stress.

Hypothesis 2 (H2): Person-organization fit has a negative effect on job stress.

Hypothesis 3 (H3): Compensation and benefit have a negative effect on job stress.

Hypothesis 4 (H4): Job insecurity has a positive effect on job stress.

METHODOLOGY

This study employed a quantitative approach to identify the factors influencing job stress among employees working at fast-food restaurants in the Klang Valley area, Malaysia. The study sample consisted of employees from well-known fast-food establishments, including KFC, McDonald’s, Pizza Hut, Subway, Domino’s, Burger King, A&W, and Texas Chicken among others. The selection of these fast-food establishments was based on their substantial size and workforce, which makes them a representative sample of the industry (Jones & George, 2020; McDonald’s Annual Report, 2023). The Malaysian Department of Statistics (2023) reports that there are estimated 30,000 individuals employed in fast-food establishments within the Klang Valley area.

Convenience sampling was utilized to distribute questionnaires due to its effectiveness in gathering data swiftly and efficiently in similar studies (Etikan, Musa & Alkassim, 2016). Out of 210 questionnaires distributed, only 201 valid questionnaires were collected with response rate of 95.7%. This high response rate aligns with prior studies conducted on staff survey within the fast-food sector (Smith & Brown, 2021).

The data collected were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 27 to address the research objectives. The analysis conducted in this study includes Reliability Analysis, Descriptive Analysis, Multiple Linear Regression, Pearson Correlation, and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) developed by Cohen, Karmarck, and Mermelstein in 1983. These methodologies provided thorough and extensive understanding of the factors that influence job stress among fast-food employees in the Klang Valley.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Demographic Profile of Respondents

Based on the data analysis, majority of the respondents in this study were male with 52.2% accounting for a larger proportion of the total respondents compared to female with 47.8%. In addition, the largest age group of respondents fell between the ages of 20 to 29 years old (61.2%), followed by those below 20 years old (17.9%). Among the 201 respondents, only 13.9% of respondents were between 39 to 39 years old, 6.0% of respondents were between 40 to 49 years old and finally a tiny proportion (1.0%) were 50 years old and above, indicating that the study mainly captured the younger generation (generation Y). In this study, a significant number of the respondents were single (75.6%), 3.4% of the respondents who were already married and the 1.0% of minor respondents were divorced and got engaged.

From the aspect of highest education level, the highest percentage of respondents (50.7%) were Malaysian Certificate of Education (SPM) holders and some of them were working as part timers while waiting for their results for their further studies. Then, 26.4% of diploma holders, 7.5% of bachelor degree holders, 8.5% of certificate holders and 13% of other qualifications. There was only 0.5% which 1 respondent was a master degree holder. Lastly, there are only 2 respondents (1.0%) worked for 4 hours per day, majority 138 respondents (68.7%) worked for 8 hours per day and 24 respondents worked for more than 10 hours per day.

Table 2: Demographic Profile of Respondents

Multiple Linear Regression

Multiple Linear Regression Analysis was conducted to determine the most influential factors affecting job stress among employees in the fast-food industry. First of all, the analysis revealed that both working environment and job insecurity were significant as exhibited p-values of .001 and .002 and these p-values were below the acceptable significance level of .05. Thus, the working environment and job insecurity were concluded to bring significant effects to job stress. These findings align with the results obtained in a previous investigation conducted by Amran et al. (2020) and Shin (2019) mentioned that there was never ending demand and extremely high turnover rate in the fast- food industry.

Moreover, in order to indicate the most influential job stress factor, the comparison was done by comparing the standardized coefficients beta value (β). The magnitude of the beta coefficient determined the strength of the effect, with higher values indicated a stronger impact. According to the results, the factor with the highest beta value and concluded that gave the strongest effects to job stress was the working environment with β= -.275, p=.001. Continued by the factor of job insecurity with a beta value, β= -.220, p=.002 has become the second strong contribution to job stress among the employees in the fast-food industry. The obtained result is in line with the nature of work in the fast-food industry such as being fast-paced to maintain efficiency and productivity while handling a large volume of orders and maintaining quality standards at the same time. In short, job stress frequently happened when there was a potential mismatch between an individual and their work environment.

Table 3: Model Summary of Multiple Linear Regression Analysis

R square= .241; indicated that 24.1% of total variances in employees’ job stress was explained by working environment, job insecurity, person-organization fit and compensation and benefits.

a. Predictors: (constant), Working Environment, Job Insecurity, Person-Organization Fit, Compensation and Benefits

Table 4: Result of Multiple Linear Regression Analysis

Pearson’s Correlation Analysis

The findings showed there was a negative relationship for all the independent variables between job stress. Since the result showed the values of working environment, job insecurity and person-organization fit were .000 and compensation and benefit were .002 were all below the P < .05. Therefore, all the independent variables including working environment, job insecurity and person-organization fit and compensation and benefit were significant at a significance level of 0.01 (2-tailed) of job stress.

Based on the results, the relationship between all the independent variables and job stress were negative, which means when the particular variable increases, job stress will decrease. First, the highest correlation coefficient (r value) was -.430 between working environment and job stress. The results obtained in this study were a line of research of Athirah et al. (2019) showed that a pleasant working environment has a negative and significant impact on reducing the level of job stress. This indicates a moderate and negative relationship between these two variables. Continued by the r values between job insecurity between job stress, were found -.382. This result suggested a moderate and negative relationship between job insecurity and job stress. Next, the r values between person-organization fit and job stress was -.323. Also, it could be concluded that there was a moderate and negative relationship. Lastly, the r values between compensation and benefits and job stress was the lowest at -.219, indicating a weak and negative relationship between these variables.

Therefore, the first hypothesis (H1), the second hypothesis (H2) and the third hypothesis (H3) were accepted as supported and mentioned at literature review parts. However, the fourth hypothesis (H4), “Job insecurity has a positive effect on job stress” was rejected. It may have specific characteristics such as different employment practices, organizational cultures or labour regulations. Also, it was possible that the fast-food companies provided additional support mechanisms or benefits to mitigate the negative effects of job insecurity on job stress. For example, clear communication between employees, assistance programs or training opportunities that reduce the impact of job insecurity on employees’ stress levels which lead to the rejection of the hypothesis. In addition, the majority of respondents fall within the age range of 20-29 years, with many of them being employed during transitional periods for further study such as after completing pre-university studies (STPM) or obtaining a diploma. Consequently, they may exhibit a relatively lower level of concern regarding job continuity and future of the job. Hence, these unique factors might influence the relationship between job insecurity and job stress in a way that deviates from the expected positive effect.

Table 5: Pearson’s Correlation Analysis

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Perceived Stress Scale

Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) by Cohen et al. (1983) had been utilized to determine the extent of employees feeling stress at their job in fast food restaurants. The PSS is a dependable and verified instrument used to assess the extent to which individuals see their life as lacking predictability, control, and being overwhelmed (Cohen & Williamson, 2023). Based on the findings presented in Table 6, it was observed that employees in the fast-food industry reported moderate to high levels of perceived stress. Only one individual (0.5%) reported a low level of stress, while 54 respondents (26.9%) reported a moderate level of stress, falling within the score range of 14-26. However, a significant number of 146 respondents (72.66%) reported a high level of stress, falling within the score range of 27-40. The finding was supported by research of Amran et al. (2018) stated that more than 75% which about 475 casual dining restaurant employees in Klang Valley perceiving a moderate to high level of stress.

Table 6: The result of Perceived Stress Scale

CONCLUSION, LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS

This study addresses key fast-food job stress factors, laying the ground work for future research. It carefully explores how working environment, job insecurity, person-organization fit, and remuneration and perks affect job stress in fast-food establishments in Klang Valley. The study’s findings and methods gave a thorough framework for future research and numerous perspectives. A major contribution of this work is the discovery of fast-food employment stress determinants. The working environments, job insecurity, person-organization fit, and remuneration and perks are key elements that can reduce job stress. Workload, employee support networks, and organizational culture may also affect workplace stress. Future study might expend on this basis.

The study’s quantitative approach and use of Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) establish a rigorous methodological framework that can be repeated and expanded across context and industries. This study gives useful insights into fast-food workers’ workplace stress, however it uses cross-sectional data. Longitudinal job stress studies can improve understanding. Such research would show how job stress evolves and the long-term effects on stressors on people. Longitudinal research can reveal trends and causal correlations that cross-sectional studies miss, improving the understanding of fast-food occupational stress dynamics. At the same time, this study acknowledges cultural, economic, and sociological factors affect occupational stress but does not go into detail. Future study should examine how economic factors such as labour market dynamics, and cultural attitudes towards work and stress affect fast-food job stress. An economic downturn can worsen job insecurity, and cultural values may influence stress management. Future studies can create culturally appropriate job stress therapies by including these environmental factors. Hofstede (2020) and Lazarus & Folkman (2022) emphasizes the importance of these larger factors in occupational stress research.

Additionally, the sample in this study was restricted to fast food employees located in the Klang Valley area. The researcher recommended to expand the sample size to yield more reliable data. Furthermore, restricted time and lack of cooperation were also part of the limitation in this study. The respondents in the study were not given sufficient time to respond to the questions and some respondents were given invalid information by completing the questionnaire without reading or returning some partially completed questionnaires from the respondents. The researcher suggests adopting a mixed methods approach by combining quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews. This involves combining quantitative surveys, which gather numerical data, with qualitative interviews, which provide detailed insights and perspectives from participants.

Another promising research topic is how technology affects fast-food job stress. Automation of ordering systems and cooking equipment brings both benefits and concerns, however the current study does not address this. Future study can examine how technology affect employment stress, including its potential to expedite procedures and reduce physical workload and technical challenges, the requirement for constant learning, and job displacement worries. Although Byrnjolfsson & McAfee (2017) and Tarafdar et al., (2019) have begun to study these dynamics, further fast-food research is needed. Meanwhile, this study provides valuable data on the determinants of job stress but stops short of translating these findings into concrete policy recommendations. Job stress-reduction strategies and interventions should be the focus of future research. These include management techniques, workplace design enhancements, employees assistance programmes, and regulatory changes. Effective occupational stress reduction methods require collaboration with industry stakeholders, politicians, and mental health professionals. Cooper & Quick (2017) and Parker & Gryphon (2018) emphasize the importance of collaboration in reducing workplace stress.

REFERENCES

1. Adnan, A. M., Rahman, A. E. A., & Ahmad, R. (2018). Factors Influencing Turnover Intention among Fast Food Restaurant Managers. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8(17), 195–210.
2. AIA Malaysia. (2018). One year later: Malaysian workforce experience high productivity loss and work-  related stress. AIA Health Services Sdn. Bhd. https://www.aia.com.mpress-releases/2018/one-year-later-malaysian-workforce-experience-high-productivity-loss-and-work-related-stress.html
3. Amran, F. W., Ghazali, H., & Hashim, S. (2019). Influence of Working Environment, Workload and Job Autonomy towards Job Stress: A Case of Casual Dining Restaurant Employees in Klang Valley, Malaysia. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 9(5), 744–755. https://dx.doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v9-i5/6003
4. Armstrong, M. (2023). A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice (15^th ed.). Kogan Page.
5. Armstrong, M., & Taylor, S. (2022). Armstrong Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice (15^th ed.). Kogan Page.
6. Athirah Saidi, N. S., Michael, F. L., Sumilan, H., Omar Lim, S. L., Jonathan, V., Hamidi, H., & Abg Ahmad, A. I. (2019). The relationship between working environment and employee performance. Journal of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development, 5(2), 14–22. https://doi.org/10.33736/jcshd.1916.2019
7. Boon, C., & Biron, M. (2016). Temporal issues in person-organization fit, person-job fit, and their effects on work outcomes. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37(1), 15-31.
8. Brynjolfsson, E., & McAfee, A. (2017). The Second Machine Age; Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technology. W.W. Norton & Company.
9. Cohen, S., & Williamson, G. (2023). Perceived Stress in a Probability Sample of the United States. In S. Spacapan & S. Oskamp (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Health (pp. 31-67). Sage Publications.
10. Cooper, C. L., & Quick, J. C. (2017).  The Handbook of Stress and Health: A Guide to Research and Practice. Wiley-Blackwell.
11. Cresswell, J. W., & Cresswell, J. D. (2017). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method Approaches. SAGE Publications.
12. De Witte, H., Vander Eist, T., & De Cuyper, N. (2015). Job insecurity, health, and well-being. In J. Vuori, R. Blonk, & R. H. Price (Eds.), Sustainable Working Lives (pp. 109-128). Springer.
13. Domino’s Pizza. (n.d.). Domino’s Home Page – Domino’s pizza, order pizza online for delivery. Dominos.com. https://www.dominos.com.my/
14. Etikan, I., Musa, S.A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoritical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1-4.
15. Fan, P. (2018). Person–organization fit, work–family balance, and work attitude: The moderated mediating effect of supervisor support. Social Behavior and Personality: an International Journal, 46(6), 995–1010. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6915
16. Fariz, N. M., & Puteh. F. (2021). Factor Affecting Employee Turnover Intention among Generation Y   Workers In Fast-Food Industry. Faculty of Administrative Science and Policy Studies.   Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM). ISBN: 978-967-14569-4-1
17. Flick, U. (2018). An Introduction to Qualitative Research. SAGE Publications.
18. Forrest, J. L. (2017). Reducing Fast Food Employee Turnover with Appealing Working Environments. Doctoral dissertation, Walden University.
19. Greenhalgh, L., & Rosenblatt, Z. (1984). Job insecurity: Toward conceptual clarity. Academy of Management Review, 9(3), 438–448. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1984.4279673
20. Harshana, J. (2018). Work Related: A Literature Review. Juniper Publishers, 2(3). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333198895_Work_Related_Stress_A_Literature _Review#:~:text=The%20definition%20of%20job-related%20stress%2C%20however%2 C%20should%20include,unpleasant%20emotional%20states%20in%20their%20workplaces %20%28Harshana%2C%202018%29.
21. Health & Safety Executive (HSE) (2023). Work-related stress. Retrieved from Health and Safety Executive.
22. Hofstede, G. (2020). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations. SAGE Publications.
23. Jones, G.R., & George, J. M. (2020). Contemporary Management. McGraw-Hill Education.
24. Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2020). Consequences of individuals’ fit at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 281-342.
25. KFC Malaysia. (n.d.). Now available for delivery and self collection. https://kfc.com.my/join-us
26. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (2022). Stress, Appraisal, and Coping. Springer Publishing.
27. Liu, C., Y., & Lee, Y. (2022). Person-organization fit and job stress: A study of fast food restaurant employees. International Journal of Hospitality Management
28. McDonald’s Annual Report. (2023). McDonald’s Corporation.
29. McDonald’s Malaysia website (2023). McDonald’s Malaysia Career. https://www.mcdonalds.com.my/career
30. Milkovich, G. T., Newman, J. M., & Gerhart, B. (2023). Compensation (14^th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
31. Naru, A. S., & Rehman, A. (2020). Impact of job insecurity and work overload on employee performance with the mediating role of employee stress: A case of Pakistan’s fast-food industry. International Journal of Human Resource Studies, 10(1), 305. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijhrs.v10i1.15741
32. Ngozika, E. B., & Obeagu, E.I. (2018). A review on Fast Foods and Family Style.International Journal of Current Research in Biology and Medicine, 3(4), 26-30. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22192/ijcrbm.2018.03.04.006
33. Oh, J., Cho, D., & Lim, D. H. (2018). The effects of person-organization fit and person-job fit on. Work attitudes and behavior among employeeds in South Korea.  International Journal of Human Resource Management, 29(5), 826-850.
34. Parker, S. K., & Gryphon, L. (2018). “Redesigning Work: A Blueprint for Better Workplace and Organizational Performance”. Routledge.
35. Parker, S. K., & Griffin, M. A. (2018). Workplace Interventions: Improving Wellbeing at Work. Routledge.
36. Pertiwi, S. P. A., Gede, R. I., Ketut, S. I. B. (2021).  RELATIONSHIP PERSON – ORGANIZATION FIT AND WORKLOAD TO WORK STRESS AND JOB SATISFACTION. https://doi.org/10.18551/rjoas.2021-01.06
37. Radwan, H. (2023). “The impact of job stress in the fast-food industry”. Journal of Occupation Health Psychology, 28(1), 45-56.
38. Radwan, M. (2023). “Job Stress in the Fast-Food Industry: An Overview”. Journal of Occupaional Health Psychology, 28(2), 112-125.
39. Rubenstein, A. L., Eberly, M. B., Lee, T. W., & Mitchell, T. R. (2020). Surveying the forest: A meta-analysist, moderator investigation, and future-oriented discussion of the antecedents of voluntary employee turnover. Personnel Psychology, 71(1), 23-65.
40. Saidi, N. S. A., Michael, F. L., Sumilan, H., Lim, S. L. O., Jonathan, V., Hamidi, H., & Ahmad, A. I. A. (2019). The relationship between working environment and employee performance. Journal of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development, 5(2), 14-22. https://doi.org/10.33736/jcshd.1916.2019
41. Salary Explorer. (2023). Restaurant manager average salary in Malaysia 2023. The Complete Guide. http://www.salaryexplorer.com/salary-survey.php?loc=130&loctype=1&job=412&jobtype=3
42. Selye, H. (1976). Stress in Health and Disease. Stoneham, MA: Butterworth.
43. Shin, H. C. (2019). The relationship between psychological contract breach and job insecurity or stress in employees engaged in the restaurant business. Sustainability, 11(20), 5709. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11205709
44. Shoss, M. K. (2017). Job insecurity: An integrative review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management, 43(6), 1911-1939.
45. Smith, J., & Brown, A. (2021). Employee satisfaction and retention in the fast-food industry: A rewiew. Journal of Human Resource Management, 12(3), 215-230.
46. Statista Research Department. (2023). Malaysia: Number of fast food restaurants 2026. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1387283/malaysia-number-of-of-fast-food-restaurants/
47. Sundstrom, E., & Sundstrom, M. G. (2021). Work Places: The Psychology of the Physical Environment in Offices and Factories. Cambridge University Press.
48. Sumathi, N., Vishnu, S. A., Govindan, G., Sreekumar, M., Srinivas, N., & Siddarth, Y.S. (2019). business analysis   of a fast food restaurant chain. International Journal of Latest Technology in Engineering, Management & Applied Science (IJLTEMAS). ISSN 2278-2540.
49. Sverke, M., Låstad, L., Hellgren, J., Richter, A., & Näswall, K. (2019). A meta-analysis of job insecurity and employee performance: Testing temporal aspects, rating source, welfare regime, and union density as moderators. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(14), 2536. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142536
50. Tarafdar, M., Cooper, C. L., & Stich, J. F. (2019). The technostress trifecta-Techno eustress, techno distress and design: Theoretical directions and an agenda for research. Information Systems Journal, 29(1), 6-42.
51. Tarafdar, M., Cooper, C.L., & Stich, J. F. (2019). “The Dark Side of Information Technology.” Sloan Management Review, 60(2), 61-70.
52. Vander Elst, T., De Witte, H., & De Cuyper, N. (2013). The Job Insecurity Scale: A psychometric evaluation across five European countries. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 23(3), 364–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432x.2012.745989 
53. Wijesinghe, A. G. K. (2017). An Exploratory Examination of Interactions between Leadership Behavior and Person-Organization Value Fit on Employee Performance. Kelaniya Journal of Management, 6(2), 15-32. http://doi.org/10.4038/kjm.v6i2.7543
54. Yougov. (2021). Dining & QSR Rankings 2021 Malaysia. YouGov PLC. https://business.yougov.com/content/34956-yougov-dining-qsr-rankings-2021-malaysia