Climate Variability, Gendered Indigenous Ecological Knowledge, and Health Inequalities in Western Kenya

Climate variability is increasingly reshaping socio-ecological systems, livelihoods, and public health outcomes across Sub-Saharan Africa. In Western Kenya, shifts in rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and ecological degradation are closely associated with rising health inequalities, including malnutrition, waterborne diseases, and other climate-sensitive illnesses. While Indigenous Ecological Knowledge (IEK) is widely recognized as a key resource for climate adaptation, its gendered dynamics and implications for public health remain insufficiently integrated within climate-health policy frameworks. This study examines how gendered power relations influence the production, transmission, and application of IEK, and how these dynamics shape environmental processes and health outcomes. The analysis is based on a systematic qualitative synthesis of 45 peer-reviewed studies, policy documents, and regional case analyses published between 2015 and 2025, identified through structured database searches and analyzed using thematic content synthesis. The findings show that women play a central role in soil management, water conservation, and crop diversification practices that enhance environmental resilience, food security, and disease prevention. However, structural constraints, including unequal land tenure systems, limited access to resources, and exclusion from decision-making processes, restrict the translation of this knowledge into equitable health outcomes. The study further demonstrates that climate variability affects health primarily through environmentally mediated pathways and that IEK functions as a gendered adaptive system within these processes. The study concludes that integrating IEK into climate–health governance while addressing gender inequalities is essential for strengthening resilience and reducing health disparities.

Climate variability; Public health; Indigenous ecological knowledge; Gender

1. Agarwal, B. (2018). Gender equality, food security and the sustainable development goals. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 34, 26-32. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

2. Altieri, M. A., & Nicholls, C. I. (2017). The adaptation and mitigation potential of traditional agriculture in a changing climate. Climatic Change, 140(1), 33-45. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

3. Bain, R., Cronk, R., Hossain, R., Bonjour, S., Onda, K., Wright, J., & Bartram, J. (2014). Global assessment of exposure to faecal contamination through drinking water. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 19(8), 917-927. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

4. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

5. Eriksen, S., Schipper, E. L. F., Scoville-Simonds, M., Vincent, K., Adam, H. N., Brooks, N., & West, J. J. (2021). Adaptation interventions and their effect on vulnerability in developing countries. World Development, 141, 105383. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

6. Food and Agriculture Organization. (2021). The state of food and agriculture 2021. FAO. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

7. Folke, C., Biggs, R., Norström, A. V., Reyers, B., & Rockström, J. (2016). Social-ecological resilience and biosphere-based sustainability science. Ecology and Society, 21(3). [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

8. Gebrechorkos, S. H., Hülsmann, S., & Bernhofer, C. (2020). Changes in temperature and precipitation extremes in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania. International Journal of Climatology, 40(1), 18-30. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

9. Haines, A., & Ebi, K. (2019). The imperative for climate action to protect health. New England Journal of Medicine, 380, 263-273. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

10. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2022). Climate change 2022: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

11. Jost, C., Kyazze, F., Naab, J., Neelormi, S., Kinyangi, J., Zougmore, R., … Kristjanson, P. (2016). Understanding gender dimensions of agriculture and climate change in smallholder farming communities. Climate and Development, 8(2), 133–144. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

12. Kansiime, M. K., Wambugu, S. K., & Shisanya, C. A. (2014). Perceived and actual rainfall trends and variability in Eastern Uganda. Climate and Development, 6(2), 142-151. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

13. Leal Filho, W., Ternova, L., Parasnis, S. A., Kovaleva, M., & Nagy, G. J. (2022). Climate change and zoonoses: A review of concepts, definitions, and bibliometrics. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(2), 893. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

14. Levy, K., Woster, A. P., Goldstein, R. S., & Carlton, E. J. (2016). Untangling climate change and diarrheal diseases. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 95(4), 728-736. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

15. Mango, N., Makate, C., Tamene, L., Mponela, P., & Ndengu, G. (2017). Awareness and adoption of land, soil and water conservation practices in the Chinyanja Triangle, Southern Africa. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 5(2), 122–129. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

16. Mbow, C., Rosenzweig, C., Barioni, L. G., Benton, T. G., Herrero, M., Krishnapillai, M., & Xu, Y. (2019). Food security. In IPCC Special Report on Climate Change and Land. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

17. Mugi-Ngenga, E. W., Mucheru-Muna, M., Mugwe, J., Ngetich, K., & Mairura, F. (2021). Household food security and climate adaptation. Agricultural Systems, 185, 102947. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

18. Mugagga, F., Nabaasa, B. B., & Kakembo, V. (2012). Land use changes and landslide hazards in Mount Elgon. Natural Hazards, 60, 1239-1253. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

19. Myers, S. S., & Frumkin, H. (2020). Planetary health: Protecting nature to protect ourselves. Island Press. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

20. Ngetich, K. F., Diels, J., Shisanya, C. A., Mugwe, J., & Mucheru-Muna, M. (2019). Soil conservation and climate resilience in Kenya. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 274, 24-33. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

21. Nyantakyi-Frimpong, H., & Bezner Kerr, R. (2015). A political ecology of climate change adaptation. Gender, Place & Culture, 22(4), 475-490. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

22. Ostrom, E. (2009). A general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science, 325(5939), 419–422. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

23. Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement. BMJ, 372, n71. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

24. Place, F., Barrett, C. B., Freeman, H. A., Ramisch, J. J., & Vanlauwe, B. (2003). Prospects for integrated soil fertility management using organic and inorganic inputs: Evidence from smallholder African agricultural systems. Food Policy, 28(4), 365–378. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

25. Rocheleau, D., Thomas-Slayter, B., & Wangari, E. (1996). Feminist political ecology. Routledge. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

26. Robbins, P. (2012). Political ecology: A critical introduction. Wiley-Blackwell. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

27. Romanello, M., Di Napoli, C., Green, C., Kennard, H., Lampard, P., Scamman, D., … Costello, A. (2023). The 2023 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: The imperative for a health-centred response in a world facing irreversible harms. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

28. Romanello, M., McGushin, A., Di Napoli, C., Drummond, P., Hughes, N., Jamart, L., … Costello, A. (2021). The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: Code red for a healthy future. The Lancet, 398(10311), 1619–1662. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

29. Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology. Journal of Business Research, 104, 333–339. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

30. Sorensen, C., Saunik, S., Sehgal, M., Tewary, A., Govindan, M., Lemery, J., & Balbus, J. (2018). Climate change and women’s health: Impacts and opportunities in India. GeoHealth, 2(10), 283-297. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

31. Tschakert, P., & Machado, M. (2012). Gender justice and rights in climate change adaptation: Opportunities and pitfalls. Ethics and Social Welfare, 6(3), 275-289. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

32. Watts, N., Amann, M., Arnell, N., Ayeb-Karlsson, S., Beagley, J., Belesova, K., Costello, A. (2021). The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown. The Lancet, 398(10311), 1619-1662. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

33. World Health Organization. (2021). Guidelines on sanitation and health. WHO. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

34. World Health Organization. (2023). Climate change and health. WHO. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

35. Zougmoré, R., Partey, S., Ouédraogo, M., Torquebiau, E., & Campbell, B. (2023). Climate-smart agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa. Sustainability, 15(2), 1450. [Google Scholar] [Crossref]

• Exploring Gender Narratives: Femininity and Masculinity in Health and Commercial Advertising in the Philippines
• Gendered Dimensions of Marital Celebrations: A Comparative Analysis of Women's and Men's Experiences and Perceptions
• Assessing the Impact of Gender Mainstreaming Policies and Programs on Gender Equality in Caraga Region, Philippines: A Quantitative Survey-Based Analysis
• Gendered Coping Patterns: Advancing Healthy Help-Seeking Behaviours in Men
• From Panoptic Control to Quiet Resistance: Navigating Gendered Childhoods and Emerging Agency in Rajshahi, Bangladesh